International Statistics Research Articles

Numerical simulation of heat transfer during meat ball cooking and microbial food safety enhancement.

This study was conducted to apply the finite volume method (FVM) to solve the partial differential equation (PDE) governing the heat transfer process during meat cooking with convective surface conditions. For a one-dimensional, round-shaped food, such as meat balls, the domain may be divided into shells of equal thickness, with energy balance established for each adjacent shell using in the finite difference scheme (FDS) to construct a set of finite difference equations, which were then solved simultaneously using the FORTRAN language and the IVPAG subroutine of the International Mathematics and Statistics Library. The FDS is flexible for temperature-dependent physical properties of foods, such as thermal conductivity (k), specific heat (Cp ), thermal diffusivity (α), and boundary conditions, for example, surface heat transfer coefficient (h), to predict the dynamic temperature profiles in beef and chicken meat balls cooked in an oven. Once the FVM model was established and validated, it was used to simulate the dynamic temperature profiles during cooking, which were then used in combination with the general method to evaluate the thermal lethality of Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli and Salmonella spp. using D and z values in ground meats during cooking. The method can be applied to design cooking processes that effectively inactivate foodborne pathogens while maintaining the quality of cooked meats and evaluate the adequacy of a cooking process. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: The temperature dependences of thermal conductivity (k) and thermal diffusivity (α) of raw ground beef and ground chicken meats were measured. These thermal properties were then used in numerical simulation to predict the dynamic heating temperature profile and thermal lethality of ground beef and chicken meat balls. The numerical simulation method may be used to optimize and evaluate thermal processes and ensure the inactivation of pathogens in meat products during cooking.

Leading Global Cities In The Russian-Language Segment Of Internet: How Do They Look Like At The Beginning Of The 21st Century?

In the XXI century, the factors of the development of megacities are changing rapidly, the competitiveness of which increasingly depends on their image in different social environments. The purpose of the study is to identify main common features of the current image of the leading global cities (London, Paris, New York and Tokyo) in the Russian–language segment of the Internet (Runet). The research was based on a combination of methods of socio-economic geography, quantitative and qualitative methods of sociology. To reflect the objective reality of megacities, international statistics were used; to assess the role of Internet information resources influencing the formation of the image, the number of search queries in Runet and the context of publications about cities in social media were analyzed; to identify the configuration of the image, the data of a sociological survey were studied. It was revealed that the perception of megacities in Runet is based on a comparable volume of information flow in social networks (the number of published messages is 20 thousand per day for Paris and London, 15 thousand for New York, 4 thousand for Tokyo) and on similarity of publications’ context (2/5 are in the categories “entertainment” and “personality”). Despite certain limitations of the methods used and the relevance of the digital artifacts obtained, the image structure of the centers under consideration is characterized by the predominance of objective over subjective and cognitive (knowledge and ideas about “physical” givens) over affective (emotions, feelings, sensations) components with the key role of four collective categories: common features of large cities, idealized imagery of the country, prestigious urban locations and world architectural brands; as well as high stability in time and space. The continuation of research based on the proposed principles, while improving the methodology and involving cities of different classes, will contribute to the adaptation of foreign experience in designing of images of ambitious Russian cities in the face of new global challenges.

Statistical analysis and decision trees to identify risk factors in the Mexican population due to COVID-19 pandemic

Introduction: the COVID-19 pandemic caused by the new SARS-CoV-2 virus was a big challenge to the world and was responsible for a vast number of deaths in a brief period; one of the countries with the greatest number of deaths was México. For this reason, studying this emergency is crucial.Objective: study and compare the available statistics for Mexico about the COVID-19 pandemic and build a machine learning model that helps to identify the risk factors of the Mexican population.Methods: this research is structured into three sections. Firstly, a worldwide and national statistical analysis, then a decision tree-based model, and lastly, research about the results of the vaccination campaign. Different databases were used to fulfill the objectives of each section. Results: with international information, the number of cases and deaths were studied for a group of countries; in addition, this study compared daily cases and deceases in México, Colombia, and Spain. The national data was used to obtain different statistics and a decision tree-based model. For the vaccination campaign, various statistics were gathered.Conclusions: even though international statistics did not help determine if comorbidities had a significant effect on deceases, national statistics indicate that they were a risk factor for passing away due to COVID-19. Similarly, the decision tree model indicated that hospitalization was a common characteristic among deceased people. For the vaccination campaign, the lack of data was a problem in identifying the role this event had in the development of the pandemic; nevertheless, the international surveillance systems received an exceptional number of reports about adverse events; for this reason, each person should decide if they need a vaccine

Monitoring the sleep health of adults: a scoping review of routine national surveillance systems.

The aims of this review were to identify existing national surveillance systems monitoring one or more domains of sleep health in adults, and to describe the specific sleep health indicators used. We systematically searched the gray and peer-reviewed literature for routinely conducted cross-sectional and longitudinal nationally representative health surveys that included the assessment of at least one domain of sleep health. The methodology involved: (1) targeted searches of the websites of national and international health agencies and statistics departments for 199 countries, (2) country-specific customized internet searches, and (3) country-specific electronic database searches of PubMed. A total of 19762 records were identified from both the gray and peer-reviewed literature. Sleep health surveillance at the national level was conducted by 51 countries (25.6%) across 69 national health surveys. Sleep quality (96.1% of countries that surveilled sleep) was the most frequently assessed followed by sleep duration (27.5%), sleep medication use (25.5%), sleep disorders (17.6%), daytime alertness (15.7%), sleep satisfaction (15.7%), and sleep timing (7.8%). Additionally, 34.8% of the surveys utilized multiple sleep health indicators. This study identified three significant gaps in the coverage of sleep health within national surveillance systems. Limited population sleep data in low- and middle-income countries, inconsistent use of sleep-related items in surveys and questionnaires, and substantial variability in the definitions of sleep health indicators. Advocacy for the inclusion of sleep health within national surveillance systems may be warranted given the important role sleep plays in public health.

Global social changes: risks for the welfare state

The relevance of the chosen topic is due to the fact that globalization, being the most important factor in social dynamics, leads to tectonic shifts in absolutely all spheres of social life. These changes are ambiguous and dual in nature. The purpose of this work is to identify the contradictory nature of the influence of global transformation in the context of recent challenges (COVID 19, increased international economic competition, a complex of economic problems, sanctions policy, political instability) on the scale of inequality in the modern world, the functioning of the institution of the social state, consensus on issues of social cohesion, social justice and social solidarity. The theoretical basis of the article was the work of F. Fukuyama, I. Wallerstein, P. Rosanvallon, G. E. Anderson and others. The interdisciplinary nature of the research within the framework of the identified problems requires the use of both the results of sociological research and a significant amount of international economic statistics. The authors have carried out a comprehensive analysis of the factors of global socio-economic changes that most directly affect the functioning of the modern social state. Based on current sociological and statistical data, the authors prove the complex feasibility and partly even change in the basic principles of the “welfare state” associated with social justice, social cohesion and social solidarity in modern Western European countries, which until recently were considered a standard of high quality and living standards of the population, a developed social support system, and a large middle class. It is concluded that the negative trends of global social changes are unlikely to be changed in the foreseeable future, despite the measures taken by national governments and international institutions aimed at stabilizing the socio-economic situation.

Active market labour policies towards people with disabilities

This article examines the active employment policy for persons with disabilities of working age, ensuring the transition from social security to employment in welfare states. In the first part of the study, based on international research and EU statistics, the reasons for such a transition, the goals, and the principles of active employment policy in welfare states with social democratic, conservative-corporatist, and neoliberal models are revealed. Criteria and methods for assessing employability are presented to distinguish between persons with disabilities and the unemployed, followed by their allocation to programmes with temporary or permanent forms of support. The pathways for entering the labour market are shown, oriented towards insiders (individuals with preserved or temporarily impaired employability) and outsiders (persons with disabilities with low employment prospects). The socio-demographic characteristics of persons with disabilities affecting their productivity and employability, and determining their needs for selective support measures, are reflected. The principles of “offensive” and “defensive” active employment policies in relation to such individuals, increasing the likelihood of employment and retention in the labour market, are studied and revealed. This includes the obligations of the state, employers and persons with disabilities, aswell as incentive and punitive measures. The volume of public funds allocated to employment policy, the main directions in the expenditure classification system: services, active and passive measures are presented. The structure of expenditures and the purpose of each type of active employment measures for persons with disabilities are revealed, including job creation, start-ups, sheltered and supported employment, rehabilitation, employment incentives, and training. The priorities of active measures for persons with disabilities and employers, which contribute to their employment and retention in the labour market in welfare states with different models, are identified. The trends in the development of active employment policies over the past decade, strategies to increase its effectiveness, priorities for passive and active measures during periods of economic downturn are analysed. The results of the impact of active policies on the employment of persons with moderate and severe disabilities, as well as the consequences of changes in the accessibility of social security for disability and unemployment during the transition from social security to employment, are shown.

Занятость в неформальном секторе экономики в северных регионах России

This article explores employment in the informal sector across Russian northern regions and studies factors that affect the employment rate in this sector. The research aims to examine various facets of this subject, encompassing the role of informal employment in job creation. Drawing on data from international organizations, domestic research, and statistics, the study reveals the significant role played by the informal sector in the country's economy. Utilizing a production approach, the article analyzes the structure of informal employment in the northern regions of Russia and identifies three groups of factors influencing employment rates. For these three groups, indicators were chosen that formed the basis for the analysis of employment trends in the informal sector. Using official statistics for 2005-2022 while considering the comparability of data collection and processing methods, the study assesses the level of informal employment in northern regions and studies how it is influenced by the economic factors under question. Despite a high Gross Regional Product (GRP) per capita, the study reveals that existing institutions do not contribute to the population settling in the North. The article highlights variations in informal employment rates. It underscores the importance of stimulating sector formalization, improving the quality of life in the North, and supporting economic growth. The study's results can inform regional policies addressing employment and social services.

Elusive trade-off: The solution to energy poverty and GHG emissions in Africa

A groundbreaking strategy known as "coopetition" has emerged to provide energy access to underserved populations in Africa while reducing greenhouse gas emissions. This approach, applied across 54 African nations, combines cooperation and competition, supported by a comprehensive financial framework encompassing financial development, foreign direct investment (FDI), and official development assistance (ODA). Utilizing advanced moderated multiple regression analysis with data from reliable international sources and IBM SPSS Statistics (Version 28.0.1.1 (14)), this study highlights the strong connection between financial resources, energy poverty, and emissions. Inadequate financial support hinders renewable energy adoption and policy development, contributing to rising emissions. The research explores how coopetition modifies the relationship between ODA and energy poverty while reinforcing links between coopetition, ODA, and reduced emissions. Notably, the study challenges conventional wisdom by debunking the direct influence of financial development and foreign direct investment on energy poverty and emissions. Instead, it underscores the importance of transparent regulations, robust financial structures, and risk mitigation in advancing sustainable energy solutions.

The Effect of Awareness of Halal Cosmetics’ Health on Consumers' Willingness for Purchase

Background: International statistics have shown Muslims’ increased awareness of halal cosmetics has increased the volume of halal cosmetics business. According to Iran's laws, imported or domestically manufactured cosmetics are evaluated in terms of being halal, but it seems that consumers are unaware of this issue. The purpose of this research is to measure consumers’ awareness of halal cosmetics and its effect on willingness to buy these cosmetics.
 Methods: This study was conducted on 123 cosmetic consumers through pretest-posttest method. First, consumers' awareness and willingness to buy halal cosmetics and the criteria affecting cosmetics purchasing were measured. Then, a brochure containing information about halal cosmetics and the requirements of Iran's law regarding the import and production of cosmetics was provided to the participants. After a week, the same variables were measured again. The collected data were analyzed using IBM SPSS 26 software.
 Results: On a 5-point Likert scale (1 = very little to 5 = very much), the average consumers' awareness of halal cosmetics and willingness to buy them were 3 and 3.04, respectively (P-value < 0.05). After the distribution of brochures, the average awareness of halal cosmetics and willingness to buy these products increased to 4.1 and 4.12. Moreover, among the criteria (price, brand, having a halal certificate, country of origin, customs clearance, and buying from reputable stores) for deciding to buy cosmetics in the pretest stage, customs clearance and having a halal certificate, respectively obtained importance level of 4 and 5, but in the posttest stage, they obtained the level of 1 and 2.
 Conclusion: Informing consumers about the health of halal cosmetics and the country’s laws regarding the import and production of these products can increase the buyers' sensitivity towards the cosmetics’ halal nature and willingness to buy the halal ones. This can reduce the chance of buying smuggled products and those produced outside official controls.

STUDYING THE CHANGING COMPETENCIES OF GREATER PARIS (TO THE 100TH ANNIVERSARY OF A.E. SLUKA)

The article deals with the study of Greater Paris in the context of changing paradigm of the development of a large city under the transnationalization of world economy and the process of globalization. The contribution of A.E. Sluka, Professor of the Moscow University, Honorary Member of the Russian Geographical Society, who created a “dynamic” portrait of the French capital of the second half of the twentieth - early twenty-first centuries on the basis of the synthetic approaches and revealed the main features of its socio-economic geography, is evaluated. The article analyzes shifts in the functional structure of the metropolis during the transition to the “international city” model as a result of the implementation of the decentralization and dein-dustrialization policy. The scientist’s ideas on studying the competencies of the city as a corporate center and in the context of practices of the largest agglomerations of the world are being developed. GIS technologies are applied to describe the specific features of Greater Paris as a location of the country’s largest TNCs and the acceptor of branches of foreign companies. The multidisciplinary nature of large national business is revealed, which contributes to the development of interfirm cooperation and serves as an additional resource for the competitiveness of the city. The sectoral structure of foreign corporate segment of its economy is dominated by companies in the material sphere of production (mechanical engineering, chemical and food industries), while the geographical structure is dominated by the US TNCs. There is a consolidated placement of local and foreign companies mainly in three functionally different clusters (within the historical core, the Defense district and Paris-Saclay). Based on the materials of international statistics and ratings of cities, the modern place of Greater Paris among the “world capitals” is considered applying the comparative geographical method. Most ratings include it in the top-5 cities of the planet and characterize it as a multifunctional center of global importance, permanently expanding the scope of its competencies. Being inferior in absolute value of the main economic resources, innovative and environmental indicators, it is ahead of many largest agglomerations of the world in terms of the scope of economic and political influence, information exchange and cultural interaction, as well as the quality of life; it is well-known by specific creative industries. When analyzing the image of the French capital on the basis of sociological surveys, the stability of its “global attractiveness” is noted due to the resources of symbolic capital, which plays an increasingly important role in the information society.

Research on the Phenomenon of Modern Luxury Consumption

Along with the fast growth of the Chinese economy, the citys population continues to grow, and as the consumer becomes more mature day by day, the quantity of Chinese luxury consumers has obviously increased. This article analyzes luxury consumption by elaborating on the definition of luxury and the relevant situation of luxury consumption and by expounding on the development of luxury thinking. This paper will use the relevant knowledge of international trade, economics, and statistics to analyze the data collected through journal literature inquiry and network search. The result shows that the irreplaceable qualities of symbols, which might reveal a consumers financial and social position, their expectation of receiving respect, and their capacity to connect with others, affect the level of luxury purchase. As luxury consumption has two sides, the state and government should regulate and control it. From this vantage point, the phenomenon of luxury consumption needs to be fairly and impartially assessed. The study of luxury consumption can guide consumers toward establishing a sustainable and healthy consumption concept.

Measuring university size: A comparison of academic personnel versus scientific talent pool data

Abstract This paper compares two measures of the organizational size of higher education institutions (HEIs) widely used in the literature: the number of academic personnel (AP) measured according to definitions from international education statistics, and the scientific talent pool (STP) (i.e., the number of unique authors affiliated with the HEI as derived from the Scopus database). Based on their definitions and operationalizations, we derive expectations on the factors generating differences between these two measures, as related to the HEI’s research orientation and subject mix, as well as to the presence of a university hospital. We test these expectations on a sample of more than 1,500 HEIs in Europe by combining data from the European Tertiary Education Register and from the SCImago Institutions Ranking. Our results provide support for the expected relationships and also highlight cases where the institutional perimeter of HEIs is systematically different between the two sources. We conclude that these two indicators provide complementary measures of institutional size, one more focused on the organizational perimeter as defined by employment relationships, the other on the persons who contribute to the HEI’s scientific visibility. Comparing the two indicators is therefore likely to provide a more in-depth understanding of the HEI resources available.

Proactive Prevention: Denmark’s Domestic Practices of Human Rights Compliance

Abstract Fuelled by an ambition to solve the puzzle of the stark contrast between Denmark’s increasingly negative presence in the international press and its leading performance in European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR) compliance statistics, this article presents the results of a mixed-method study of the country’s domestic human rights’ protection and implementation practices. The story that emerges is not one of compliance, but of proactive prevention with a tinge of strategic risk-taking and prompt implementation. The majority of the Danish action within the compliance sphere takes place before one can even talk about compliance—domestically before the international spotlight is prompted to shine on Denmark by an adverse judgment against it. The article shows how each branch of power has an idiosyncratic way of working towards the prevention of human rights’ breaches. Yet, domestic prevention and international statistics say little about the quality of implementation and human rights’ protection. The article offers a concrete illustration of the blind spots of compliance data in the absence of qualitative research related to domestic practices and proves that there are lessons to be learned from studying even the most exemplary compliers. This makes the Danish case study an important contribution to the broader literature on the ways in which the ECtHR influences states other than through the implementation of judgments. Importantly, it also shows that while the proactive prevention of adverse ECtHR judgments can mean the same as the proactive prevention of human rights’ breaches, this is not always the case.

Accommodation Problem of Higher Education Students from the Past to the Centenary of the Turkish Republic

Türkiye has gone through a significant expansion process in its higher education system, especially since the beginning of the 2000s. However, this expansion brought with itself the problem of student accommodation. This study examines the accommodation problem of Turkish higher education students who have to abandon their hometowns to live in cities where they get an education. The method used is document analysis including refereed journal and newspaper articles, national and international reports and statistics and various online sources. They referred to the proclamation of the Turkish Republic in 1923 and covered the centenary of the Republic in 2023. Briefly, the key findings noted the inadequate bed capacities in university and state dormitories, dramatic increases in the cost of accommodation, and architecture and management problems in dormitories that negatively affect the service quality and the daily routines of students. For a more thorough analysis, a mixed-method study is suggested for future researchers.

CURRENT STATE AND PROSPECTS OF THE POST-WAR GROWTH OF INTERNATIONAL BUSINESS TOURISM IN THE CONCEPT OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT OF THE TOURIST INDUSTRY OF UKRAINE

In the presented scientific article, on the basis of the complex of studies carried out, the author analyzed the current state and prospects of the post-war growth of international business tourism in the concept of sustainable development of the tourist industry of Ukraine, as one of the leading tools for stimulating the recovery of the state's economy. The conducted author's research made it possible to determine that international tourism in general and its elements in particular, such as business tourism, are an extremely important aspect of the tourism industry of our country in terms of effective management of economic processes and require a corresponding update of approaches to their implementation, provision, development and quality review in relation to their implementation in life precisely in the concept of sustainable development. A study of the international tourism statistics of our country and a comparative analysis of the volumes of outbound and inbound tourism expenditures were carried out, the factors of negative impact on their level were systematized and analyzed. An improved author's understanding of the directions and prospects of the post-war growth of international business tourism in the concept of sustainable development of the tourism industry is provided. Also, the main features and principles of "sustainable tourism" are briefly explored, and the author's vision of this direction in a perspective context is proposed. Tourism has been proven to be one of the world's largest industries and categories of international trade, defined by an impressive network of socio-economic activities and the infrastructure necessary to support it. Based on this, it is shown and proven from the author's point of view that the implementation of international business in the concept of sustainable development in the post-war period will make it possible to: master the latest organizational and economic values and adapt to them; implement the concept of sustainable development in the international business tourism industry based on the definition of the features of its creation, distribution, accumulation and consumption of results; to form a new model of implementation and consumption, taking into account factors of a socio-ethnic nature.

Evaluating the embodied carbon of building materials imported to Hong Kong

The rapid growth of the construction industry prompts the interregional imports of building materials, leading to the embodied carbon (EC) transfers. Previous studies evaluated trade-driven EC through Input-Output analysis or focused on individual products, lacking the detailed analysis of EC of building material at the product level. This study examines the EC in the import of 52 building material commodities to Hong Kong in 2012–2021. The EC is calculated by multiplying the quantities of imported building materials by the emission factor for their production in the exporters. The import quantity data are obtained and validated by local and international trading statistics, while the emission factors are collected from the literature and relevant life cycle database (e.g. Ecoinvent). The results show that the EC was between 3.18 and 6.76 Mt/a over the ten years, equivalent to 7.5–17.7% of operational emissions in Hong Kong's construction sector. The EC transfer to Mainland China is found the most significant, accounting for 58.7–76.1% of the total, followed by that to Japan, Taiwan of China, and Vietnam. This uneven EC transfers mainly result from various quantities and types of imported materials from different exporters. The EC per import value is unevenly transferred, ranging from 4.05 to over 2000 g/HKD. The EC mitigation effects of the material efficiency measure were generally negative, ranging from −1.80 to 0.23 Mt. Meanwhile, the EC mitigation effects of the cleaner production measure of materials were continuously positive, from 0.03 to 0.33 Mt. This study proposes the methodology to quantify the trade-driven EC and support the classification of consumption-based responsibility of the construction sector in Hong Kong and beyond.

Poverty in Selected European Countries. A Spatio-temporal Analysis from 2003–2020

The problem of poverty, both in theory and practice, gained a new meaning with the beginning of the transformation of selected European economies from being centrally planned to market economies. The transition and the accompanying ownership changes resulted in significant shifts in the income distribution, which affected the increase in the stratification of society in terms of material situation and the deterioration of the living conditions of some social groups. Developing and evaluating anti‑poverty programs should be preceded by identifying who is considered poor. Defining poverty is the first and a key step in measuring its characteristics, e.g., its intensity. Hence, the choice of a specific definition of poverty is of fundamental importance for the results of this measurement. The aim of the paper is to assess the material situation of European societies in terms of poverty change in a holistic approach – considering all the information available in international statistics on the problem. To achieve the research objective at the regional data level, we used the URi measure to decompose changes in structure and estimate the direction and intensity of poverty recorded. Further, we evaluated whether the transformations coincide temporarily and spatially. Applying the Hellinger distance (HD) allowed us to identify the significance of trends in changes in the poverty structure, especially in the years of the COVID–19 pandemic, when an increase in the importance of individual structural components of poverty was observed in the analysed European NUTS–2 spatial units. For some economies, the transition was also a consequence of European economic crises or major events of international importance, e.g., sports events or countries acceding to the EU.

К ВОПРОСУ ОБЕСПЕЧЕНИЯ ПОЖАРНОЙ БЕЗОПАСНОСТИ ОБЪЕКТОВ ЗАЩИТЫ

Ensuring fire safety is one of the priority tasks of the state. Over the past few years, against the background of a decrease in the total number of dead people in fires, there has been a slight increase in the number of dead people in certain types of fire objects. To minimize the possibility of fires at supervised facilities, which are primarily dangerous in that they may lead to death, existing algorithms for motivating compliance with fire safety requirements for unscrupulous controlled persons are needed. The article considers the peculiarities of the implementation of control and supervisory activities at present, which may have a potential impact on the motivational component while complying with fire safety requirements at supervised facilities. The data of international fire statistics on the average number of dead people per 100 thousand people of the population are given, the dynamics of this indicator for Russia for the periods 2015–2019, 2016–2020, 2017–2021 are indicated. Official data of departmental fire statistics of EMERCOM of Russia on the number of dead people per 100 thousand people of the population are given, by the number of dead people, by the distribution of the number of dead people by certain types of fire objects, the dynamics of these indicators for the period 2019–2022, as well as for 3 months 2023, is indicated. A number of changes in the part of the regulatory framework and features related to the federal state fire supervision were noted and analyzed. The official data of the departmental statistics of EMERCOM of Russia of the law enforcement practice of the federal state fire supervision are indicated, the dynamics of individual indicators for the period 2021–2022 is indicated. It was concluded that it is necessary to continue to reduce the unreasonable administrative burden in relation to conscientious objects of control and to motivate the prevention of non-compliance with fire safety requirements by unscrupulous objects of control.

The statistical trilemma: built-in limitations of international economic statistics

Economic statistics are central to global economic governance. They are the informational background to the Sustainable Development Goals, conditional lending by international organizations, and other dimensions of development policy. But there is a growing chasm between aspirations for economic statistics and what they can deliver on the ground. We argue that these shortcomings are rooted in what we call a trilemma of official statistics, a general limitation that goes beyond methodological deficiencies of individual indicators. Data users demand that economic statistics should (a) use harmonized standards to be comparable, (b) be guided by standards prescriptive enough to guarantee reliability and prevent manipulation, and (c) be suited to local socioeconomic contexts. Yet as we show, complex statistics can only satisfy two of these conditions at once. Importantly, we can only increase the suitability of such statistics to local contexts if we make concessions on either prescriptiveness or harmonization. We examine three cases in detail: national accounts statistics, poverty lines, and unemployment statistics. To strengthen external validity, we also briefly consider inflation, trade, and debt statistics as additional cases. The statistical trilemma clarifies the inevitable trade-offs statisticians face when designing measurement standards and thus the role they can – and cannot – play in global governance.

A Comparison of Market Economy and Planned Economy: Based on German Democratic Republic and Federal Republic of Germany

The economic confrontation between East and West Germany is one of the key topics. Researchers have reached a consensus that the market economy of the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG) is more superior and more realistic than the planned economy in German Democratic Republic (GDR). However, the research still lacks a persuasive explanation about the deep and essential reason why market economy is better than command economy. Also, there are debates about the practical application and future extension of two economic formats. Thus, the study allocates and compares the international relations, important statistic and divergent economy systems of two Germanies, attempting to address these research gaps based on the fait accompli in GDR and FRG. The research outcomes illustrate that in all three domains did market economy in FRG overwhelmed planned economy in GDR, while the command economy also showed strength in particular areas. The outcome of the research indicates that market economy is more superiors and more functional in a macroscopic aspect than planned economy. To be specific, market economy obtains the strengths of developed productivity, a free market with countless chances, the opportunities to compete freely with high rewards and the ability of continuingly creating wealth to the society, while planned economy protects and promotes the equivalence of the distribution of social wealth. Based on it, the emergence of a highly integrated economy is forecasted, which is a combination of market economy and command economy but the main part is market economy.