Internal Strife Research Articles

Why Civilizations Collapse: The Cruciality of Social Solidarity and the Dangers of Its Absence

This essay examines the complexities of civilizational collapse, proposing that it is not a singular event but a prolonged process driven by internal conflicts and external threats. It begins by defining the concept of collapse and uses historian Jared Diamond’s perspective to analyze how internal strife, such as loss of cultural identity, conflicting ideologies, and political division, can initiate the decline of a civilization due to a fragmentation of social solidarity. The essay then uses historical examples of the Islamic and Roman Empires to illustrate the importance of social solidarity for the survival of civilizations. It also discusses the internal challenges faced by modern civilization, including issues brought about by globalization, political polarization, East-West conflicts, global supply chain shortages, and how these factors can erode solidarity, posing a risk of collapse to the contemporary “world civilization.” The essay concludes by highlighting that internal conflicts and the absence of social solidarity are the primary causes of civilizational collapse, a theory that remains relevant for understanding the challenges faced by the global civilization today.

Promoting Intercommunity Relations for Effective Security and Peacebuilding along the Sokoto-Zamfara-Katsina Axis of the Nigeria-Niger Borderland

This article explores the emerging narratives surrounding the persistent phenomenon of armed banditry in the region. It focuses on the factors and actors driving banditry along the Nigeria-Niger borderlands. Using data from both primary and secondary sources, the study reveals that internal strife along the borderlands and the collapse of state control have facilitated the proliferation of small arms, significantly increasing the intensity of banditry in Nigeria's northwest. The research concludes that the prolonged neglect of border communities has deprived them of basic necessities, exacerbating the situation. As a result, Nigeria’s northwestern states—Sokoto, Zamfara, and Katsina, which border Niger—have become safe havens for raiders and bandits, who, in some cases, establish 'informal structures' of control over the borderland communities.

Monastic Unrest on the Border of Carolingian Italy: The Strange Case of Abbot Poto of San Vincenzo al Volturno

ABSTRACT In the aftermath of the Carolingian conquest of the Italian peninsula, a commission was held in Rome to judge the case of Poto, Abbot of San Vincenzo al Volturno, who was accused of infidelitas for refusing to pray for Charlemagne’s safety. The papal inquiry reveals the existence of two factions within the monastic community, each of them likely following a different approach to monastic discipline. However, regional politics soon overlapped with internal strife, as the group led by Ambrogio Autpert was supported by Duke Hildeprando of Spoleto and the other led by Poto was supported by Pope Adrian I. This article analyses this episode of monastic unrest by focusing on the opportunities that political uncertainty opened for public authorities in an unsettled border area. It also aims to challenge the ethnic framework (assuming a Lombard faction opposed to a Frankish faction) which historiography has traditionally applied when interpreting Poto’s act of disobedience.

Rywalizacja mocarstw regionalnych i globalnych w pogrążonej wojną domową Libii

RIVALRY OF REGIONAL AND GLOBAL POWERS IN CIVIL WAR-RIDDEN LIBYAThe aim of the article is to analyse the role that the conflict in Libya plays in the politics of regional and global powers. The theory of regional security complexes was adopted as a theoretical perspective for considerations. The analysis focuses on the impact of threats within the Middle Eastern regional security complex, with particular emphasis on the North Africa sub-complex, and the impact that global powers have on this complex in connection with the conflict in Libya. The research problem under consideration is how the Libyan civil war fits into the architecture of regional security. The conditions of the conflict in Libya, such as the geostrategic location, tribal and regional divisions, weakness and breakdown of state structures, make it easy for both regional and global powers to influence its course. The clear division of the state into two strong and competing political and territorial units means that external actors are forced to take sides and get involved in the internal strife. The involvement of external actors has deepened and perpetuated the existing political, geopolitical and social divisions. Both sides of the conflict, with the support of regional and global powers, are entrenching their positions, stiffening their negotiating stances and thus limiting the chances of reaching a political agreement.

Сепаратизм в политике и религии: сравнительный анализ

Scientific positions regarding the nature of political and religious separatism are analyzed. The general reasons for the emergence of separatist movements in the religious and political environment are identified. Separatism is considered not only from the point of view of the negative connotations inherent in this concept in the media environment, but also as a constructive phenomenon - a direct consequence of the active development of social relations. It must be recognized that separatism is a complex, multilayered phenomenon in religion and politics, and can have both constructive and destructive effects, leading to internal strife and social upheaval. Because of the close interaction between religion and politics, political and religious separatism have much in common. As a result, a specific kind of separatism - religious and political - is emerging.

Colonial Ambitions and Afghan Sovereignty: Analyzing the First Anglo-Afghan War

In the 19th century, Russia and the United Kingdom fought one other diplomatically in an attempt to gain more influence in southern Asia. The Russians called it a "shadow tournament," but the British invented the phrase "Great Game." The ascent to prominence of Amir Dost Muhammad Khan was seen by the British as a danger to their interests in India. It was claimed that by using Amir, Russia was intruding on India's borders. Russia's ambitions for regional expansion coincided with the British invasion of Afghanistan. The British redirected their attention to Afghanistan as a result of this development. The British persevered even after they were unable to persuade Amir Dost Muhammad Khan to sign a treaty that would have ended Russian control. Russia continued to communicate with the Amir of Kabul during this time. Consequently, in 1839 the British launched an invasion of Afghanistan, which restored Shah Shuja to his former position. A long-lasting and deadly power battle between the Sadozais and the Barakzais, two sections of the Durrani tribe, took place in Afghanistan in the early 1800s. Dost Mohammad Khan was named the new Emir of Kabul after the Barakzais won the civil war. However, in the midst of the internal strife, Ranjit Singh, the ruler of the Sikh kingdom, took control of Peshawar. This led to a huge and irreversible conflict of interest between Afghanistan and the Sikh state. In addition to identifying the crucial person who made the choice that ultimately sparked hostilities, the essay aims to make clear how these factors interacted and contributed to the start of the conflict. This invasion was a major blow to the British, and it was a turning moment in modern history because it was the first time the Afghans and the British had faced off, which ultimately led to the British's defeat. For its inquiry and study, this article uses a descriptive research approach and technique.

The return of Jason and the recall of the exile Damophilus in Pindar's Fourth Pythian Ode: Mythical tale and politics quarrels

AbstractJason's coming back to Iolcus embodies the return from exile after an unjustified usurpation. Pelias overthrew his half-brother Aeson, and he forced the latter's new-born Jason into exile. In the Fourth Pythian Ode for Arcesilaus IV of Cyrene, Pindar's mythical digression focuses on the perspective of the exile Jason coming back to Iolcus. Pindar focuses on this story in fuller detail because he favors the recall of the exile Damophilus, a disgraced member of the aristocracy from Cyrene. The mythical conflict of the Aeolid family corresponds to the historical internal strife among the Battiads. The opposition to this dynasty should shortly put an end to their power after the overthrow of Arcesilaus IV. Given his authority as initiated into poetry, Pindar has the right to advise the king to reconcile with his opponents. Finally, this Ode is written to support the right of Damophilus, who was a close friend of Pindar, to be allowed to return to his homeland.

Boko Haram* Insurgency and the Challenges of Internally Displaced Persons in Nigeria

The consequences of insurgency, internal strife, and natural disasters force internally displaced people (IDPs) to live lives they never anticipated or desired. On this note, this study explores the challenges faced by IDPs in Nigeria as well as the globalisation of the Boko Haram (recognized as a terrorist organization in the Russian Federation) insurgency. The study also looks at the difficulties IDPs in Nigeria face as a result of the Boko Haram (recognized as a terrorist organization in the Russian Federation) insurgency, such as violence between Hausa and Fulani, natural and man-made disasters. Due to their affiliation with foreign terrorists, Boko Haram’s (recognized as a terrorist organization in the Russian Federation) effects are more devastating. The study adopted the human needs theory and used qualitative research methods to gather information from secondary sources including books, journal articles, news magazines, and internet sources. According to the human needs theory, it is up to the government to decide how to handle social issues. Findings indicate that the difficulties faced by internally displaced people in Nigeria, which include housing shortages, starvation, hunger, lack of access to water and electricity, and lack of sustainable occupation, portend serious threats to the nation’s human security. The study also suggests that to address the issue of start-up funds, which threatens IDPs’ economic opportunities in new environments, the government should quicken the advancement of low-interest loans for skilled IDPs. The government should also work with people and organisations to provide vocational skills. The study concludes that, doing so will help to alleviate the situation of Nigeria’s internally displaced people.

The Sinicization and Evaluation of Emperor Shun of Yuan Dynasty

The last emperor of the Yuan Dynasty, Tuohuan Tiemuer, was a controversial emperor. The author used the method of exemplification to prove that in Emperor Shun’s early years, he worked hard to govern, advocated Han law, loved drinking tea, and governed the country through literature. He implemented the "Zhizheng Year Reform", compiled the three histories of Liao, Jin, and Song, and his social, economic, and cultural aspects were revitalized, truly deserving of the title of a wise ruler. But in his later years, he indulged in debauchery, disregarded court politics, indiscriminately killed ministers, allowed court ministers to engage in internal strife, and ultimately lost his country and fled to the north, becoming the ruler of the fallen country. This evaluation of Emperor Shun of Yuan is more objective and comprehensive.

The role of geopolitical components in Afghanistan's national power

Geopolitics is an interdisciplinary science that studies how geography, politics, and power dynamics interact globally. This study explores the complex relationship between geopolitical variables and Afghanistan's strength as a nation, thereby providing important context for understanding Afghanistan's position in the world. This research aims to provide insight into the complex dynamics that emerge within Afghanistan's civilian government. This analytical adjustment is descriptive-analytical and applied, absorbing experts and activists in the fields of defense, security and Afghan politics. Statistical citizens number 50, including the Amharic community, with characteristics such as a college degree, knowledge of cartography and civil power, scope of employment, and permission to interview. Researchers adapted the areal analysis method, submitted and distributed questionnaires to experts in two stages. The results show the importance of national unity as 96% of respondents agreed that it is necessary. This highlights the historical resilience of the Afghan people in the face of external pressures and internal strife. The analysis highlights other important geopolitical factors besides national unity, such as leadership, Aryan culture, human resources, and geographical position. The study also emphasizes how dynamic Afghanistan's national power is, with new geopolitical components such as “Aryan culture” and “diplomatic qualities” becoming important players in the changing geopolitical environment. In conclusion, this research highlights the complex network of geopolitical variables underlying Afghanistan's sovereignty. The foundation of national strength is unity and various historical, cultural and geographical elements. Understanding these dynamics is critical to understanding Afghanistan's position internationally and formulating strategies to increase its stability and influence.

Marketing agility in underdog entrepreneurship: A qualitative assessment in post-conflict Sub-Saharan African context

Extant entrepreneurship literature lacks specific research on how underdog entrepreneurs survive and strive in post-conflict environments. This study seeks to explore the role of marketing agility as an essential capability to survive and exploit business opportunities in post-conflict Sub-Saharan Africa, where institutional voids and volatility coexist. The empirical research design comprises of multiple case studies of sixteen underdog (war-affected) entrepreneurs in Liberia and Sierra Leon; both countries which went through civil war and violent internal strife in recent past. The study findings reveal that marketing agility and its dimensions, i.e., robustness, responsiveness, and proactiveness, are critical for underdog entrepreneur’s business’s survival. Finally, the findings also show that institutional context, volatility, and individual experiences of entrepreneurs tend to influence the manifestation of this marketing agility.

Competition, Cooperation, and Influence in the Informal Economy: Interest Representation in Informal Markets in Mexico City

This article proposes that the specific conditions under which collective action happens in informal markets generate a non-linear relation between organizational density (the number of organizations representing a single constituency) and effective claim-making around common objectives, unlike the expectations of standard theories tailored to organizational activity in the formal sector. Informal workers' capacity to demand resources from the government is best served by intermediate levels of organizational density, when organizations experience enough competition to make them responsive to their constituencies, but not so much that internal strife undermines their effectiveness in securing shared objectives. To test this argument, I leverage a mixed-methods approach to examine the case of informal workers' organizational behavior in public and street markets in Mexico City.

Gurjara-Pratiharas: Their Origin, Evolution and Decline in Rajasthan

The Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty, also known as the Pratihara Empire, played a significant role in the history of Rajasthan.The Gurjara-Pratiharas emerged as a prominent power in North India during the 6th century CE.It is generally believed that they originated from the Gurjar community, and their early dominance was centred around present-day Rajasthan and Gujarat.The Gurjara-Pratiharas expanded their rule in Rajasthan, with their capital located in Mandore, near present-day Jodhpur. They established control over much of Rajasthan, including the region of Marwar. The dynasty reached its zenith under King Bhoja (836-885 CE). During his reign, the empire extended into central and northern India, and the arts and culture also flourished. Over time, the Pratihara Empire faced internal strife and external invasions, weakening their grip on Rajasthan. The Chahamana (Chauhan) dynasty, among others, began to challenge their authority. The decline of the Gurjara-Pratiharas continued, and by the 11th century, they lost their prominence. This period saw the rise of Rajput kingdoms in Rajasthan, marking the end of the Pratihara influence in the region.In summary, the Gurjara-Pratiharas rose to power in Rajasthan, established a strong empire, and significantly influenced the region's history before gradually succumbing to internal and external pressures.

A Contribution to Social Sustainability Efforts in Turkey in the Context of Migration: Uyum Çocuk (Harmonization Child) Platform

Owing to its strategically advantageous geographical position that connects Asia and Europe, Turkey has consistently experienced a high rate of migration throughout its history. Nevertheless, one of the most remarkable and unparalleled migration events unfolded in 2011, triggered by the internal strife in Syria resulting from the Arab Spring. This tumultuous period witnessed an enormous wave of Syrian refugees seeking refuge within Turkey’s borders. Given its contemporary relevance, this migration carries profound implications for the social sustainability of future generations. This study aims to evaluate the contribution of the Uyum Çocuk (Harmonization Child) platform, initiated by the Turkish Ministry of Interior, to promote social cohesion among both native and immigrant children to the advancement of social sustainability. The platform is assessed across various dimensions of social sustainability, including social equality and justice, cultural diversity and freedom of expression, social participation, sustainable urban development, and eco-consumption. The research findings underscore that the platform primarily focuses on enhancing social equality and justice while other dimensions receive comparatively less attention. Considering Turkey’s role as a host country for millions of migrants, this study recommends that public authorities and civil society organizations prioritize initiatives aimed at instilling the principles of social sustainability across all segments of society, with a particular emphasis on children.

PAKISTAN'S DEFENCE IN THE CHANGED SOUTH ASIAN SCENARIO

The month of May 1998, opened a new chapter in the history of South Asia. The test conducted by India totally destabilized the region. Sanity was restored after Pakistan's display of nuclear prowess. However, the strategic outlook had been irrevocably altered in a manner, where-by, two nuclear weapon states are facing each other across contiguous borders. Probably the Indian aim of the Pokhran II initiative was to confirm the development of a bomb design suited for deployment atop the Agni missile. The immediate decision to go ahead could have been spurred by the successful Pakistani test of Ghauri Missile. Another reason was the belief of Hindu leadership, that "nuclear weapons are a symbol of international power and prestige". There is, however, no doubt that the main reason for the Indian initiative was to further her hegemonic designs by acquiring and flaunting the capability. (Vaughn, 2007, January). We must understand the multifarious changes associated with this development and carry out a reappraisal of Pakistan's security considerations. Today, we stand at a crossroads, the decisions taken now would shape our destiny. They would either secure the future of our generations or put them under the constant threat of a holocaust. The changed scenario has amplified existing national security issues such as internal strife in the form of regional and provincialdisputes, acts of terrorism manifested in the form of religious and ethnic divides, economic constraints and lastly, the need for an immediate up-gradation of our conventional military hardware. The defence of the country from internal threats is as important as defence against an external aggressor. While considering security matters, vital national compulsions like Pakistan's support for the Kashmir cause, need to be accorded priority. Pakistan has been able to internationalize the issue. The changed scenario is well suited to keep up the pressure

Bektaşî Erenlerinden Güvenç Abdal ve Şeceresi

During the 1200s and 1300s, Anatolia grappled with invasions and internal strife. In the midst of these challenges, specific movements emerged that would eventually lay the foundation for Anatolian Alevism. Their primary goal was the Islamization of Anatolia. To this end, lodges were established, and religious leaders sent pioneers like dervishes, mystics, and spiritual guides to various parts of Anatolia to spread Islam and ease its conquest. One such location was the Harşit Valley in Gümüşhane, situated along the Silk Road of the time, surrounded by rugged mountains and cliffs, named after the Harşit River flowing through it. Güvenç Abdal, assigned to this region by the renowned Hacı Bektaş Veli, (Ḥāccī Bektāş Velī, d. 669/1270–1?), settled here and established his spiritual lodge despite the challenging conditions of the area. While his exact birth and death dates remain unknown, it is believed that Güvenç Abdal lived between the 1200s and 1300s. His lineage has persisted for centuries through oral traditions and spread across many cities in Turkey. The Güvenç Abdal lodge, a quintessential example of Anatolian Alevism, not only provided services like feeding and hosting travelers, repairing their mounts, and ensuring their safety due to its strategic position on the trade route but also undertook crucial responsibilities. Furthermore, recognizing the significance of this valley for national trade, Fatih Sultan Mehmet granted the lodge various tax exemptions and protections. Sadly, the present status of this esteemed lodge is on the verge of being forgotten. Historical documents held by the lodge's descendants require restoration, translation, and preservation. In studies conducted on Güvenç Abdal and his lodge, there has been a tendency to focus solely on its sociodemographic structure, often overlooking its theological significance. Neglecting the translation and reading of the cherished genealogical tree, central to the lodge culture, has resulted in a gap in understanding the interconnectedness of ideas and events. Introducing this lodge's founder and genealogy, which still has many followers today, holds great importance. Our research aims not only to sketch the portrait of a historical figure but also to delve into the socio-political climate of the era, and its influence on people, society, and their thought processes.

INTRAPARTY COMMUNICATION AND PERMEABILITY IN THE SPÖ FROM THE PERSPECTIVE OF LOCAL POLITICAL ACTORS

ABSTRACT The Austrian Social Democratic Party (SPÖ) has seen its electorate steadily decline in recent years. As the party struggles to communicate clear messages to voters, debates about the internal party’s communication and leadership are increasingly being played out in the media. This study examines the perceptions of local political actors of the SPÖ regarding intra-party communication between organizational levels. The research methodology includes problem-centered interviews and group discussions with 12 local SPÖ actors from Lower Austria and Vienna. The results of the study shed light on key issues such as the need for improved intra-party communication and better transition structures for activists within the party organization. The recent success of the Communist Party (KPÖ Plus) in the federal state of Salzburg in April 2023 underscores the challenges facing the SPÖ in the current situation. Two of the three candidates for the membership referendum from April 24-May 10, 2023, in which the party base will make a preliminary decision on the future leadership of the SPÖ in order to end internal strife, argue for breaking through elitist bubbles and creating a grassroots participatory party that reflects the grassroots sentiment surveyed in this study. Keywords: social democracy, organizational communication, organizational crisis

Prerequisites for the formation of schools of Chinese Buddhism in the Nanbeichao period.

The article examines the initial stage of the formation of schools of Chinese Buddhism in the era of Nanbeichao (Northern and Southern kingdoms). Buddhism of the era of the Southern and Northern Kingdoms (386-589) is a little-studied period in the history of Buddhism in China in domestic science. At the same time, this period represents a very important stage in the development of Buddhism in China, characterized by the completion of the adaptation of Buddhism to the political, social, cultural and mental traditions of this country and the formation of Chinese religious and philosophical principles of Buddhism, which began during the reign of the Eastern Jin Dynasty (317-420) and which continued during the period of the division of China into Southern and Northern kingdoms. The division of China began with the capture of the nomadic tribes of the Tobians of the northern part of the Eastern Jin (317-420). By this time, the rule of the Eastern Jin Dynasty was characterized by political chaos, internal strife, economic decline, famine and devastation. The research is based on translations of sources from Chinese, as well as on the works of Russian scientists. As a result of the study, it can be concluded that it was the period of the Northern and Southern Kingdoms that became a kind of prerequisite for the formation of Chinese schools of Buddhism, the appearance of which marked the final formation of Buddhism in China, known as "Chinese Buddhism". Translations of texts into Chinese became the basis for the formation of schools of Buddhism. The translation activity of Buddhist missionaries of the era of the Southern and Northern Kingdoms, despite the political, economic and social difficulties caused by internecine strife, the invasion of nomadic tribes, devastation and famine, steadily continued. The tradition of translation activities of the Eastern Jin was continued in the Southern and Northern kingdoms. During Southern and Northern Kingdom epoch was made a significant contribution to the development of Buddhism in China, preparing the textual ground for the formation of schools of Chinese Buddhism, which began in the subsequent Sui era (581-618) and ended in the Tang era (618-907).

Addiction, Waste(d) Labor, and the Debate of the Carpenter's Tools

Addiction, Waste(d) Labor, and the <i>Debate of the Carpenter's Tools</i>

Reevaluating the Underlying Factors of 1990’s Mass Uprising against Authoritarian Regime in Bangladesh: An Analysis in the Light of Causal Model of Internal Conflict

From the early beginning of the authoritarian government of Ershad, there was widespread opposition to his autocratic authority, which persisted for eight years before the 1990 rebellion brought an end to it. Like the majority of movements in Bangladesh, this one was started by students who put in heroic effort to see it through to a victorious finish. This was an urban-centric movement. With the aid of an established academic model of internal conflict, this study aims to investigate the revolt and support its underlying causes - particularly its socioeconomic and cultural causes - as well as its political causes. This study has been conducted by qualitative method, in which the information has been collected from secondary sources. As the analytical framework, this study uses Michael E. Brown’s internal conflict causal model. According to this analysis, the major structural causes that led to the uprising were communal violence, a weakened educational system, corruption, and paramilitary activity on the part of the government. In terms of political factors, this study points to the authority’s use of torture or other oppressive measures against people’s fundamental rights, the state’s non-secular policy, the scope of political opportunity, public support and sympathy for the students, the authority’s political error, and the coordinated actions of political elites as being important causes of the uprising. Economic and social factors contributing to the rebellion include the rising cost of living, the debt crisis, regular failure to meet growth targets, and a highly divisive and bourgeois-centric economic system. Once more, this study reveals that the government’s actions against national culture through various policies, the extreme application of military culture, people’s negative memories of the Pakistani era’s authoritarian regime, and the positive perception of the student community in society are the cultural and perceptual factors that led to the uprising. The findings of the study will give relevant academicians, decision-makers, and the general public essential knowledge about Bangladeshi history as well as the fundamental causes of internal strife. They might contrast these conclusions with some important recent occurrences in Bangladesh. They may use it to address the fundamental issues in various facets of our society. As a result, the research may help them identify likely and long-lasting remedies for the advancement of our civilization.