Internal Strife Research Articles

State Capacity in City Planning: The Reconstruction of Nanjing, 1927-1937

After reunifying China in 1927, the Nationalist government proposed a comprehensive planning proposal, the Capital Plan ( shoudu jihua ), to reconstruct the war-torn city of Nanjing into a modern capital, despite the fact that the infant republic was still threatened by internal strife and external aggression. This article discusses the complex politics involved in the reconstruction of Nanjing from 1927 to 1937, illustrating the way in which the Nationalist state tried to transform China's urban development. It focuses on why unified planning ideas could not be generated during the planning process, and why these ideas did not turn fully into practice during the implementation process. By studying the aborted effort in planning Nanjing, knowing in what particular dimensions the state excelled and in what other dimensions things went wrong, this article analyzes the unevenness of state capacity in Republican China.

Sustaining the Occupy Movement

Sustaining the Occupy Movement

Fiscal Devolution

Countries afflicted by claims of territorial sovereignty within nation states have been predominantly preoccupied with sharing of administrative and political powers, as in the case of the armed conflict in Sri Lanka. This article argues that fiscal devolution has the potential to empower the regions within contested nation states and thereby contribute to conflict resolution in countries afflicted by internal strife and armed conflict, taking Sri Lanka as a case in point.

The People's Republic of China at 60: an international assessment

In 2009, to mark the sixtieth anniversary of the People's Republic of China, the Fairbank Center for Chinese Studies convened a major conference to discuss the health and longevity of China's ruling system and to consider a fundamental question: After three decades of internal strife and turmoil, followed by an era of reform, entrepreneurialism, and internationalization, is the PRC here for the dynastic long haul? Bringing together scholars and students of China from around the world, the gathering witnessed an energetic exchange of views on four interrelated themes: polities, social transformations, wealth and well-being, and culture, belief, and practice. Edited and expanded from the original conference papers, the wide-ranging essays in this bilingual volume remain true to the conference's aim: to promote open discussion of the past, present, and future of the People's Republic of China.

A Critique of the Foreigners Act, 1946: A Legislation de Jure or de Facto?

India, a country that has given shelter to a lot many refugees and has always welcomed one and all. Such a country is home to one of the largest refugee populations in the world. Mass human rights abuses, civil wars, internal strife, communal violence, forced relocation and natural disasters lead to the creation of refugees. It is the risk of human rights violations in their home country which compels the refugees to cross international borders and seek protection abroad. Consequently, safeguarding human rights in countries of origin is of critical importance not only to the prevention of refugee problems but also for their solutions.Since today’s refugee problem is global in nature and concerns not only individuals in their relations with states but also states in their relations with one another. Hence, we need a law which is not only a law relating to the legal status and protection of refugees but also encompasses the refugee problem as a whole, a law which is solution oriented. Human rights perspective of the refugee problem will be helpful in restructuring the present mechanisms of refugee law on these lines. Therefore, India needs to consolidate, modernize and harmonise into legislation, its long tradition and experience in accommodating the inflow of refugees and its commitment to uphold the principles of international human rights. The Foreigners Act, though it penalises the illegal entry and exit of the foreigners has not achieved the purpose which it should have achieved. A nation must protect the rights of its residents and of the refugees (Atithi Devo Bhava). There has become a lacuna, concerning legal status of refugees in India and the Constitution lacks provisions for refugees and they are considered as illegal immigrants according to the laws. Due to this, the refugees continue to be subject to arbitrary arrest and harassment. This phenomenon also unnecessarily tarnishes India’s image at the international level.Though, the Act is haphazard, it would unnecessarily tiresome on part of the Parliament to enact a new domestic refugee law. Therefore, there can be through amendment process, incorporated several provisions which would thereby protect the rights of the refugees all over.

Work environment barriers prohibiting creativity

Organizations lacking the ability to enable their workforce to approach their work in creative ways limit the organization's innovative output and might fall behind their competitors. An explorative approach was taken to determine barriers for creativity in the work environment of a branch of a European technology company based in Thailand. Work environment factors that can decrease creative output were drawn from the componential theory and extended by two categories, namely culture and physical work environment. Some individual categories were found that indirectly relate to the work environment impediments for creativity. Results show that the main barriers were fear of risk taking, physical work environment, time pressure, autonomy or freedom, and organizational impediments in form of control and internal strife.

Das Schisma zwischen Anhängern und Gegnern des Patriarchen Arsenios in der orthodoxen Kirche von Byzanz (1265–1310)

Although all the relevant sources of the Arsenite schism in the Byzantine church (1265―1310) have been published, a precise and thorough description of its beginnings, development, and final settlement, has not been attempted so far. For almost half a century, this internal strife troubled not only the Orthodox Church but also all of society in the later Byzantine empire. The schism started from a political affair, the successful attempt of Michael Palaiologos, a high-ranking military officer of noble descent, to oust John, the minor successor to the throne of the Laskarid dynasty after the premature death of his father, Theodore II. But Arsenios Autoreianos, patriarch of Constantinople since 1255, after some hesitation refused to approve John Laskaris's deposition, as well as his imprisonment and blinding by the unscrupulous usurper. The patriarch first reacted by withdrawing to a monastery without resigning his position; but he finally excommunicated Palaiologos in January, 1262. The usurper tried in vain to get absolved from the excommunication, until, finally, in 1265, he deposed Arsenios and appointed as his successor Germanos, who immediately excommunicated his predecessor. But the new patriarch soon realized that his position was weak; he retired and was replaced by Joseph Galesiotes, who finally cancelled the emperor's excommunication. But the new patriarch could not overcome the resistance of Arsenios' followers who continued to question the legitimacy of Arsenios' successors from Germanos to Athanasios (1289 ―1293,1303―1309). It was finally Patriarch Niphon who was able to negotiate a compromise with the Arsenites in 1310 and to end the schism with an impressive ceremony in Hagia Sophia.

The Function of Diplomatic Missions in Times of Armed Conflict or Foreign Armed Intervention

This article examines Raoul Wallenberg’s work as a diplomat in Budapest between June 1944 and January 1945. It suggests that Wallenberg’s legacy was initially very limited as a result of the state-centric approach to the codification of diplomatic law in the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations 1961. Nevertheless, it is argued that the emergence of the so-called “new” diplomacy, coupled with the developing notion of “responsibility to protect” in the face of gross violations of human rights, such as those faced by Wallenberg, have opened up the possibility for diplomats to engage in the process of protecting civilian populations in times of internal strife

Pakistan: 2011

Pakistan has been in the forefront of foreign policy debate for decades, at times condemned as a failing or failed state, also as a ‘terrorist’ state. As the country faces continuing pressure from the fallout of the war in Afghanistan as well as deepening internal strife, this article gives an overview of Pakistan's problems, highlighting growing anti-Western sentiment and emphasising the importance of institutional stability, as well as a resolution of ‘the Kashmir issue’.

Cannabiz: the explosive rise of the medical marijuana industry

Cannabiz tells one the most important political and business stories of our generation: the transformation of a counterculture movement into a growth industry with staggering potential. Charting the rise of medical marijuana in California and 14 other states, award-winning journalist John Geluardi vividly recounts the movement’s early activism, its legal challenges and victories, and its emergence as a commercial and political force. Tracing the history of marijuana in the United States, Cannabiz also reports on the industry’s key players, political allies and opponents, internal strife, and audacious aspirations—including a 2010 ballot initiative to legalize the adult use of marijuana in California. Along the way, Geluardi describes local efforts to regulate dispensaries, ranging from workable ordinances in some cities to bureaucratic paralysis in Los Angeles, where dispensaries came to outnumber McDonalds franchises. He also reports on efforts in Humboldt County, the heartland of marijuana cultivation, to keep pot illegal—and prices high. Adroitly profiling this unique industry, Cannabiz tells a distinctively American story—one whose colorful characters and fascinating details evoke Prohibition and the Gold Rush.

Psychoanalysis and Social Democracy: A Tale of Two Developments

This historical-theoretical article reviews prewar efforts at a “Marx-Freud synthesis,” stressing the rejection among socialist psychoanalysts of Freud's death-instinct theory. It then considers a second form of synthesis that was developed after World War II: a practical synthesis focused on meeting the needs of children and families traumatized during the War that would work through social democratic state programs and services in which psychoanalytic research on child development would be key. But psychoanalytic contributions were less influential as postwar theorists explored both the origins of war and the nature of prejudices—a topic that once again became crucial as European social democracies were challenged in the 1980s with internal inequality, strife, and prejudice against immigrants. The article raises questions about what currently needs to be done theoretically both to continue the postwar exploration of developmental needs and to extend work on prejudices.

Rivalry and Mutiny: The Internal Struggles of Sixteenth-Century North American Colonization Parties

The French attempts to establish settlements in the St Lawrence Valley (1541–43) and northern Florida (1562–65), and the English attempts at Roanoke Island (1585–87) were all disappointments. Historians cite many reasons for this, including poor Amerindian relations, difficulties of transportation and communication, and an inability to adapt to the harsh foreign environment. Less attention has been paid to the internal struggles that crippled expedition parties. Isolated and under great stress, colonists were as likely to fight among themselves as they were against the Amerindians. This article illustrates that rivalry and mutiny hindered colonization attempts as much as any other difficulty more traditionally discussed by scholars. Power struggles and insubordination were a constant problem. It will also be demonstrated that successful colonies such as Jamestown, Quebec, and Hispaniola faced similar internal strife during their formation. Thus, internal difficulties, such as rivalry and insubordination, were common challenges of colonization.

Politique sociale et religion aux Etats-Unis : du « conservatisme compatissant » à l’ouragan Katrina

Breaking with the traditional conservatism championed by Ronald Reagan, George W. Bush wanted his social policy to move away from monetary considerations to embrace a religious and spiritual method in healing social ills. The Office of Faith-Based and Community Initiatives, located in the White House, was inaugurated a few days after Bush was sworn in. However, the Office was immediately plagued by internal strife, lack of funding and absence of political commitment. Hurricane Katrina (2005) dealt a serious political blow to the Republican President. But paradoxically, it reinforced the ideological hegemony of faith-based organizations. Indeed, following the relief efforts, faith-based organizations, rather than government, were hailed as effective instruments in the fight against poverty, distress, and deviance. This article will argue that contrary to this perception, faith-based organizations have a limited effect on poverty and that the Bush administration exploited them for political purposes.

Jerusalem's Traitor: Josephus, Masada and the Fall of Judea (review)

Jerusalem's Traitor: Josephus, Masada and the Fall of Judea, by Desmond Seward. Cambridge, MA: Da Capo Press, 2009. 314 pp. $28.00. Perhaps the title of this book is a lure to readers that have heard Josephus was a traitor and want to see Seward's take on the lurid details. If that be the case, such a reader will be disappointed. Instead, if she stay till the end, the reader will realize that Josephus lived in a moment when events seemed to be on the threshold of the apocalypse if not indeed in the thick of it. He was a survivor, not by any means passive, at a time when his people living in Judea were torn with internal strife largely prompted by different responses to revulsion at Rome's heavy, often brutal hand. In the ferocious war that was the result, Josephus somehow emerged from personal defeat to become its historian. Such histories are usually written by the victors, spelling out the glories of the winners and the faults of the losers. Though Josephus writes scathingly of the most vehement of the zealots that insisted on pursuing their path to destruction, and though he had as patrons the generals that were raised to the purple in the course of the war, his chiding of the zealots was tinted with praise where it was due, and with obvious personal sorrow at their violent end. He does not write the kind of history a conqueror writes because he was a captive, a victim too of this war. He wanted to be other than this. In the last days of the war he hoped to salvage something for his people. It was because of this, as he tried to make something less than total destruction come about for his people, that he came to look like a traitor. After all, how does a person escape from such a desperate struggle to live in the emperor's former villa unless one is a traitor? Desmond Seward tells this story remarkably. Yet he is not a member of thejosephus-guild. He has also published books on Eleanor of Aquitaine, the Hundred Years War, and the involvement of monastic orders in the Crusades. Of these I have only become acquainted with The Monks of War. There, in an entirely different quarry, he digs out detail and brings to fight a vivid picture of another immensely tragic epoch in human history. Whereas Seward draws on a few of the eminent Josephus scholars of our day, he did his own spade work. It is no slur to say that here is a book that may not be quoted in the research of Josephus scholars because it does not unearth new facts. …

Investigating Chronic Poverty in West Africa

This review seeks to examine the dimensions of poverty in general and chronic poverty in particular in West African countries. The preparation of poverty reduction strategy papers by several countries in the sub-region as part of the HIPC initiative has created an incentive for the collection of nationally representative data on living conditions. Thus in a number of West African countries nationally representative survey data has recently become available. Very few, however have the large longitudinal or panel data sets on living standards. Ghana and Cote d'Ivoire appear to be the only exceptions in the sub-region. The West African sub-region comprises of seventeen countries, fourteen of which UNCTAD considers as 'least-developed', with a variety of ethnicity, culture and traditions. It is also a sub-region currently scarred by internal strife and civil war. It has a population of approximately 250 million people, with just under half of this population living in Nigeria. West Africa consists largely of low income countries, with a median Gross National Income per capita in 2000 of US$330, suggesting widespread or generalised poverty. On the basis of the purchasing power parity US$2 a day poverty line the incidence of poverty amongst ten West African countries that are least developed ranged between 60% and 94% during 1995-2000. This evidence of widespread severe poverty in the region is suggestive of a substantial proportion of the population being poor over extended periods of time.

“War” in the Jurisprudence of the Inter-American Court of Human Rights

How have the Inter-American human rights bodies dealt with the notion of war, which has been transformed over time into the notion of (internal and international) “armed conflicts”? This question has guided the first part of this study, which sets out the various types of conflicts that have occurred in the American continent. These situations (armed conflicts, internal strife, State terrorism) have produced a wide range of legal qualifications, used by both the Inter-American Commission and Court of human rights in their case-law. This conceptual delimitation carried out by these two bodies is all the more important as it affects the law that applies to armed conflicts. Indeed, by analyzing this question, the everlasting debate on the relationship between International Law on Human Rights and International Humanitarian Law reappears. The second part of this study therefore focuses on the issue of discovering whether and in which way jus in bello has found its place in the Inter-American Human Rights bodies’ case-law. As the active political life of Latin American societies has shown, the study of the different applicable legal regimes also requires looking into the “state of emergency” Law, an issue which has been shaped by the Inter-American Court and Commission’s work.

Constructing Security Council Resolution 1701 for Lebanon in the Shadow of the ‘War on Terror’

This article argues that the ‘war on terror’ gave global meaning to the 2006 Israel–Lebanon war and to the construction of UN Security Council resolution 1701 that authorized the deployment of robust UN peacekeepers in southern Lebanon (UNIFIL). It uses a critical, discursive approach to argue that UN resolutions have embedded in them a particular, powerful discourse, in this case the ‘war on terror’. This discourse grounded a global struggle for and against US domination of the region in a local power dispute in Lebanon between 2004 and 2008. It concludes that Israel's failure to defeat Hizbullah militarily resulted in resolution 1701 comprising two contradictory narratives that represented the battle for and against US domination, and that the subsequent battle for hegemonic articulation of this resolution weakened, rather than strengthened the Lebanese state during 2006–08, plunging Lebanon into internal strife until the signing of a national peace accord in Doha in May 2008.

Prison Conditions in South Africa and the Role of Public Interest Litigation Since 1994

A nation's prisons often reflect its socio-economic and socio-political context. This was certainly true of the colonial and the apartheid periods in South Africa. Prior to 1994, prison policy mirrored and reinforced broader apartheid policy. Prisons were segregated along racial lines and the use of prison labour was common. The system was brutal, and the courts did precious little to change anything. Over time, the South African government militarised the system, as the society progressively became a police state and was besieged by internal security strife.

Иракская драма идет к концу?

The withdrawal of American troops from Iraq marks the beginning of a new stage in the history of that country. Iraq once again becomes a sovereign independent state. From now on, the huge task of ensuring security and putting an end to the terrible internal strife must be entrusted to the local authority. It is crucial to find a compromise solution to the Sunni-Shiite conflict. To achieve this end, the central power has to be really inclusive, giving the Sunnis their legitimate place in governing the country. The worst scenario would be the establishment of a Shiite-dominated regime that is prone to neglect the grievances of the Sunni population. The rights of the Kurdish minority, too, have to be safeguarded unless the state falls apart. Judging by their past behavior, however, it is hard to believe in the goodwill and adequate judgment of Iraqi politicians. The author concludes that the situation may well get worse before it starts to better off.

The use of fuzzy logic and expert judgment in the R&D project portfolio selection process

New technologies emerge every day in response to a variety of needs. In research and development (R&D) project portfolio selection, the agencies responsible for budget allocation must make the crucial decision of which projects to fund. A quantitative, objective decision-making process necessarily avoids internal strife amongst decision-makers and contributes to a more unbiased process. This paper proposes a new decision aid that integrates fuzzy logic and expert judgment into non-crisp decision-making criteria for the R&D project portfolio selection process thereby reducing the number of solutions under consideration. Managers' preferences and knowledge are incorporated into the process using a fuzzy rule based aggregation procedure. This technique provides an alternative to clustering in choosing amongst non-dominated solutions. The methodology is illustrated through a case study, determining funding levels for R&D projects for the particular example of the nuclear emergency safety team (NEST).