International Security System Research Articles

ВОЄННІ КОНФЛІКТИ ТА МІЖНАРОДНА СИСТЕМА БЕЗПЕКИ

The article explores modern trends in the development of the international security system in the context of the influence of military conflicts. It is proven that the intensification of uncertainty and tension in global confrontation affects the increase in military spending in countries worldwide. The features of acquiring international characteristics of modern conflicts are highlighted. Dynamic changes in contemporary military spending, factors influencing their dynamics are analysed. Regional peculiarities of shifts in the security environment and trends in military spending are identified. The correlation between the geopolitical interests of countries and the level of military spending are substantiated. The intensification of geo-economic and geopolitical confrontation in the world is analysed in the context of the rivalry between the USA and China – leaders among countries in terms of military spending. The Top 10 countries in the world and Ukraine are analysed by the level of military spending. It is determined that russia's war against Ukraine not only has catastrophic consequences for the European continent but also poses a real threat to the world order and security system. The impact of geopolitical asymmetries and modern global challenges on the escalation of conflicts in the world is proven. Characteristics of modern conflicts defining their asymmetry are identified in the article. The essence of hybrid warfare as a form of modern conflict that combines traditional and non-traditional (military and non-military) measures of purposeful and organized infliction of losses, destruction of the country's potential (economic, innovative, military, demographic, etc.) to achieve strategic goals by the aggressor country is determined. Keywords: conflict, military conflicts, terrorism, military spending, security, international security system, asymmetry, hybrid warfare.

Asian Space Race: New Priorities for Industrial Development of Solar System Bodies

The article provides an overview of space programs and projects of the countries of the Asia-Pacific region (APR) with an assessment of their effectiveness and target orientation. The key emphasis is placed on the consideration of projects for the industrial development of Solar system bodies, which allow us to conclude about the emergence of a space industry aimed at the development and extraction of space resources. The features of the Asian model of space exploration are highlighted, which is focused more on the peaceful use of space and overcoming the problem of depletion of terrestrial resources. The space programs of China and Japan are considered in detail and an overview of space projects of other countries in the region, including Vietnam, Malaysia, India, Singapore, is made. As part of the analysis of China's space program, the most significant stages in its implementation and mechanisms ensuring the success of space projects, including a successful combination of state participation and the involvement of private companies in the implementation of space projects, are highlighted. The Japanese experience in the development of space projects and their targeted orientation to the industrial development of Solar system bodies is evaluated. The approaches of other countries of the Asia-Pacific region to the implementation of space projects based on international cooperation and cooperation with more developed countries in space exploration are shown. The special importance of the development of such projects in the space sphere is emphasized due to the fact that they can bring stability to the system of international space security, since they involve to a greater extent the peaceful use of space, focused on overcoming the problem of depletion of terrestrial resources.

How will the conflict in Ukraine affect the system of international information security?

The article is devoted to the consideration of the main changes taking place in the system of ensuring international information security after the start of a special military operation in Ukraine. An attempt is made to predict the challenges and risks that the IIS system will face in the future. The priority transformations are connected with the negotiation process within the UN, which, in the context of increasing political antagonism between the key subjects of the dialogue, is becoming increasingly politicized and is beginning to experience some difficulties. It is assumed that in the conditions of the new political reality, the issue of “comprehensive” counteraction to international cybercrime will remain unresolved. There is some fragmentation of the international information security system itself, which is experiencing centrifugal tendencies in terms of promoting alternative approaches to solving key issues in this sphere. Finally, it can be expected that the United States, in interaction with Russia, will more actively engage in a proactive strategy of so-called defend forward, which should be implemented through the concept of persistent engagement. The preliminary conclusions demonstrated by the actions in Ukraine regarding the role and place of cyber attacks directly within the framework of the armed conflict are also considered. It is assumed that in the near future cyber attacks will not be considered as a means of achieving real strategic effects on the battlefield, where conventional weapons play a dominant role. An attempt is made to give some recommendations on maintaining a certain dynamic of the development of the IIS system.

МІЖНАРОДНА ЕКОНОМІЧНА БЕЗПЕКА ТА ЦІЛІ СТАЛОГО РОЗВИТКУ: ВИЗНАЧЕННЯ ОСНОВНИХ АКЦЕНТІВ

The purpose of the article is to determine the main emphasis of the relationship between the plane of international economic security and the Sustainable Development Goals 2030. The research methodology includes a descriptive analysis of the provisions of the main international documents relevant, firstly, to the topic of international economic security and, secondly, to the concept of sustainable development; as well as elements of comparative analysis – while searching for the safe content of the SDGs 2030. The study results were obtained regarding the expediency of activating security issues, primarily within the framework of the implementation of the following Sustainable Development Goals 2030: Goal 1 “No poverty”, Goal 2 “Zero hunger”, Goal 8 “Decent work and economic growth”, Goal 10 “Reduction of inequality”, Goal 16 “Peace, justice and strong institutions”. The determined emphasis of strengthening the sustainability of international economic security will serve as guidelines for the priority direction of resources in the conditions of the war and the crises and disasters caused by it. The implementation of the processes aimed at the implementation of the SDGs directly depends on the general state of the economy in the country and the world, and, accordingly, on the situation with national and international economic security. In the conditions of the Russian war against Ukraine, economic security issues are considered as part of the national security system and in the context of interrelationships with environmental and other types of security, which are consistent with the SDGs. The scientific novelty is as follows: in the study of further development, a conceptual approach has been adopted regarding the establishment of accents in the plane of intersection of the directions of international economic security and the SDGs, which, unlike others, take into account the content of the elements of the system of international economic security, as well as its impact on the system of national economic security. The practical significance is that the obtained research results can be used in the conceptual justification of investment projects aimed at supporting the implementation of the SDGs related to security issues.

Norms and normalization in cyberspace: post-conventionality or lawlessness? (“Melian Dialogue” on Cyber Law)

Since the end of the 20th century, the Russian Federation has proclaimed the creation of an international information security system based on a global agreements under the auspices of the UN as one of the general directions of its policy in the field of international security. In turn, the United States put forward its own initiative to develop and adopt norms and rules for the conduct of states in the cyber sphere. The article notes that official Washington, with the support of a number of Western countries, managed to standardize its system of rules without international legitimation, using the peculiarities of the political situation and the willingness of Russia and the SCO countries to compromise, as well as replacing the global problem of information security for the post-industrial society with a question based on national interest. cybersecurity. The article concludes that, despite the fact that the issues of norms and normalization have been worked out quite deeply within world science, the argument put forward by the American expert community ignores generally accepted scientific results and promotes the ideas of post-democracy, interpreted in a specific way.

Особенности формирования системы национальной кибербезопасности Государства Кувейт

The article is devoted to the analysis of the state of the national cybersecurity system of the State of Kuwait. Based on the cybersecurity standards of the International Telecommunication Union (a specialized UN agency responsible for coordinating international efforts to develop the digital sector) the author reveals the main specific features of the formation of the Kuwaiti cyber system, and also determines the level of the country's participation in the development of the international digital security system. The author comes to the conclusion that the digital system of Kuwait is formed with imbalances, and many decisions are aimed at "selective" relief of digital threats. In addition, the author draws attention to the existence of contradictions in the Kuwaiti model of international cooperation on cybersecurity issues: on the one hand, the country advocates more active participation in international processes, and, on the other hand, does not actively participate in the work of key international platforms. In addition, the sharp anti-Israeli position of the country has a certain negative impact on the Kuwaiti model of digital protection. The author notes that Kuwait is currently aimed at harmonizing the national cyber system and developing a more effective approach to international cooperation. However, to make these efforts more effective, some aspects of the existing approach need to be revisited, such as developing a model for interacting with digital companies that do business with Israel.

МІЖНАРОДНО-ПРАВОВЕ РЕГУЛЮВАННЯ ЗАБЕЗПЕЧЕННЯ ІНФОРМАЦІЙНОЇ БЕЗПЕКИ В РАМКАХ ООН

As a result of the active implementation of digital technologies in all spheres of social life, both international and national legal mechanisms aiming at ensuring the support for the security of the information space stand out in the foreground. The existing legal mechanisms provide for the improvement and harmonization of the legal framework in the field of information security at the national and international levels. In this context, the idea of digital sovereignty determines the use of legal mechanisms that ensure the protection of information security. Due to this faction, a comprehensive study of the general patterns of functioning and development of international legal mechanisms for ensuring information security within the framework of the UN is particularly appropriate, relevant and requires a detailed analysis. The article addresses the analysis and study of UN legal mechanisms in the field of ensuring information security. The purpose of the scientific work is a comprehensive study of the general patterns of functioning and development of international legal mechanisms for ensuring information security within the framework of the UN and the development of scientifically based proposals and recommendations regarding the effective operation of these mechanisms in international and national legal orders (legal systems). The methodological basis of scientific research is general scientific and special legal methods. In particular, a systematic approach, a generalization method, and a systematic analysis were used in the process of scientific research. In the course of the study, there were analyzed: the peculiarities of the functioning of the institutional and legal mechanism of information protection within the framework of UN coordination in the context of the multi-vector system of international security and legal regulation of international cooperation. The article substantiates the expediency of developing an integrated, coordinated information policy of international organizations and institutions with the aim of unifying approaches to ensuring information security. Also, the work summarizes the main problems arising in the international legal regulation of the fight in the field of ensuring information security, and the main threats to international peace and security in the information space, and suggests as well ways to solve them. In this context, the work summarizes the principles of international information security, highlights the main trends in the development of cyber threats in the modern information space and measures necessary for their neutralization. The article analyzes the peculiarities of the functioning of the institutional and legal mechanism of cyber protection in the context of the legislative regulation of international cooperation between international organizations and institutions. In particular, an analysis of the main mechanisms of legal support for cyber protection of the information space was carried out with the aim of their integration into a unified international system of the legal information field. As a result of the study, recommendations were formed. In the field of ensuring information security at the national and international levels, it is necessary to continue and expand activities to create conditions for the formation of an international information security system based on generally recognized principles and norms of international law. In particular, at the UN level, it is necessary to prepare and adopt international legal acts regulating the application of the principles and norms of international law in the field of the use of information and communication technologies. Since there is no single global act that regulates the procedure for combating information threats, in this context, the task of developing the UN Convention on International Information Security is very important. The document should: identify the main threats to international peace and security in the information space; determine the main principles of ensuring international information security; prescribe in detail the principles of international cooperation in the fight against crimes in the information sphere; determine effective and efficient mechanisms of legal responsibility in the information space up to the creation of a special international body for the investigation of crimes in the information sphere.

“Стратегия выхода”: генезис концепции сквозь трансформацию мирового порядка

The transformation of the world order affects the stability of the international security system and forces nation states to intensify their efforts to develop mechanisms for preventing challenges and threats both during the transformation itself and after its completion. At the same time, political-military conflicts remain an integral element of any world order. And, paradoxically, they are the main threat to the world order. The article endeavors to analyze the features of the system of strategic planning and management of military operations under the administrations of R. Reagan and G. Bush. The choice of the period is due to, among other things, a significant similarity between the main challenges and threats relevant to the U.S. – USSR relations in that time and the U.S. – Russia relations today, which makes it possible to apply the comparative historical method of research. The purpose of the study is to identify, within the selected period, such systemic characteristics and factors, the use of which would be possible in modeling modern political and military conflicts, and would also contribute to the resolution of some of them. The particular attention is paid to the doctrine of C. Weinberger, the U. S. Secretary of Defense. The analysis of use of the American armed forces in 1981–1992 confirms the effectiveness of the Weinberger Doctrine. Moreover, with the assistance of C. Powell, the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, the Weinberger Doctrine became the basis of a conceptual approach to politicalmilitary conflicts as an “exit strategy”. Today, in the context of the immutable nature of a political-military conflict, the Weinberger Doctrine and “exit strategy” deserve special attention of the scientific community and can become a solid foundation for forecasting, planning and mechanisms for resolving modern crisis situations, armed conflicts and wars.

Необходимость к концептуальной переоценке международного терроризма в контексте текущего кризиса европейской архитектуры безопасности

For decades, religious terrorism has been one of the most widespread forms of international terrorism and has brought countless pains to the common innocents, as well as an unprecedented challenge to the international security system. However, the nature of terrorism may change once again in the background of the Russian-Ukrainian conflict and might also raise a new shape. The new shape of terrorism is perhaps largely different from the characteristics of Islamic terrorism. It should be emphasized that in a situation where the Ukrainian government may be involved in such attacks, any counterterrorism policy in the regular sense cannot be smoothly and effectively implemented. The relevance of the research problem in this article to the issue mentioned above is greatly remarkable. The article examines the redefinition of the concept of terrorism in the context of the current crisis in the European security architecture. The current regional security crisis in Europe and the hostilities in Ukraine seem to create new forms of activity that could be considered as terrorist acts. The object of research is the concept of terrorism. The subject of the study is the impact of the redefining the notion of the term “terrorism” on the national security of the Russian Federation. The purpose of the study is to understand whether the concept of terrorism should be adjusted or reconstructed at the present time in accordance with specific security threats or events during the Russian-Ukrainian conflict, as well as to consider options for possible conceptual reconstruction. Research methods. The author has used conceptual analysis, document analysis, and case studies for his research. As a result of the study, it is revealed that it is necessary to remake the notion of the term “terrorism” for Russia since Kiev’s actions in the Russian-Ukrainian conflict have changed the prevalently known form of terrorist activity. This requires a great number of arguments to prove that Kiev’s extreme behaviors relate to terrorist acts. The reason is that at the current stage, the difference between terrorist incident, armed conflict, and war has become extremely blurred. Thus, in the face of the current security situation, Russia is urgently needed to carefully and timely remake the concept of terrorism in the field of international security studies.

Ukrainian policy in the field of information security

The article analyzes the modern challenges of the time, which shape the information security policy of Ukraine. The paper analyzes the approaches to the definition of information security to understand this concept. Conclusions are made that information security is a constant movement, changeable, versatile concept, which cannot be stable. The article studies the information security of Ukraine as a component in the system of international information security. It is established that in the conditions of war, the role of information security of Ukraine in the international community has sharply increased. Ukraine's policy in the sphere of economic security is clearly marked in its legislation and meets the challenges of our time. The article presents a list of the main threats to the information security of the country: threats to independence and sovereignty through hybrid, information warfare by the aggressor state Russia, threats in the systems of the interaction of state bodies, threats related to the media, threats due to the lack of awareness and culture of information security among the population. Conclusions are made that future cases in the field of information security will be related to the elimination of threats. A list of goals for achieving information security is presented.

Всеобъемлющая система международной безопасности: теория и практика

В современном мире вопросы национальной и международной безопасности выходят на первый план. Рост и разнообразие угроз, с которыми сталкиваются государства и международное сообщество в целом, требуют от государств совместного участия для их предотвращения и устранения. Особенно актуальной становится задача по активизации всеобъемлющей системы международной безопасности под эгидой Организации Объединенных Наций. В статье рассматриваются история формирования всеобъемлющей системы международной безопасности, ее основные элементы и проблемы, связанные с реализацией. In the modern world, issues of national and international security come to the fore. Growing and diverse threats that states and the international community as a whole face require states to participate jointly in order to prevent and eliminate them. The task of activating a comprehensive system of international security under the auspices of the United Nations is becoming particularly urgent. The article examines the history of forming a comprehensive system of international security, its main elements and problems associated with its implementation.

Werther-Pietsch, Ursula. 2022. Transforming Security: A New Balance-of-Power Doctrine (Global Power Shift Series). Springer, Cham. XXII, 180 pp. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-87097-3

The modern system of international security and the doctrine of the balance of power is going through a difficult period of exacerbation of geopolitical contradictions associated with a new redistribution of zones of influence. As a result of these processes, a significant increase in instability is observed in many regions, which actualizes the problem of the military security of states. Despite the global transformations of the world system, the potential of military force is still considered one of the most effective factors in world politics.
 The emergence of new technologies of confrontation, the expansion of the range of possibilities for destructive influence through peaceful means, primarily of an informational nature, require revision and modernization of the UN security system. It is necessary to take measures to counter threats of an information nature, the object of which is both military infrastructure and public consciousness. In connection with the emergence of a new information reality, the study of the specifics of the military security system of modern countries is of great civilized significance.
 Since 2014, the UN structure and collective security have faced serious geopolitical challenges and threats due to the revival of its key role in the system of international relations, its desire to restore the international law of peace and security. Obviously, in the conditions of the new reality in modern wars, preference is given to both military and non-military technologies, the parallel use of which has a powerful destructive potential for communicative and informational impact on public consciousness, carried out with the help of cyberspace, social networks, the media and the Internet. Because of this, geopolitical actors today prefer hybrid methods of war, as well as the widespread use of information technology capabilities to inflict damage on the enemy. In this context, the totality of modern geopolitical challenges and threats in the new information reality can be characterized as a hybrid war, which includes a wide range of actions aimed at destroying all spheres of the rival country’s social life.

The world in 2023: ten issues that will shape the international agenda

Limits, both individual and collective, will be tested in 2023, whether it be inflation, food security, the energy crisis, rising pressure on global supply chains and geopolitical competition, international security and governance systems breaking down, and the collective capacity to respond to it all. The impacts of this permacrisis contribute directly to worsening household living conditions, which translate into rising social unrest and citizen protests, which will only increase. Cracks are widening and deepening – geopolitical, social and in the access to basic goods. The war in Ukraine has made it clear that the more risks are associated with a geostrategic confrontation, the more obsolete the collective security frameworks built to deal with them appear. The mismatch between means, challenges and deterrence instruments worsens.

Specificity of Turkey’s Security Relations with Neighboring Countries

The article analyzes the historical dynamics of cooperation and differences in conceptual understanding of approaches of Turkey’s international security and terrorism cooperation with the European Union and the United States in countermeasures. In the 2000s in spite of successful cooperation in the fight against international terrorism, these disagreements did not allow Turkey to fully unite to the system of international security in the Middle East, which is being built by the West. With the largest army in the Middle East and the second largest in the NATO bloc, a dynamic economy and a significant foreign policy weight (not to mention the ambitious leaders in charge), Turkey is playing an increasing role in regional and world politics. In recent years, Turkey’s foreign policy has undergone repeated, sometimes drastic changes, and its relations with a number of countries, from hostility to cooperation and vice versa, have always been the focus of the governments of the Middle East regional countries and NATO allies.

THE WAR AS A RESULT OF THE FRAGILE PEACE: THE CONCEPTUAL LOGIC OF WAR

In times of war, the theoretical problems of the essence of war and peace acquire a practical dimension. The experience of the Russian-Ukrainian war, which became a key factor in changes in the international security system, requires understanding. The full-scale and unprovoked invasion of the Russian Federation into Ukraine, as well as the further development of the conflict, dramatically changed the international community's perception of the stability of peace in Europe. The war prompted a revision of the assumptions about the nature of modern conflicts. Assumptions about a reduction in the weight of traditional means of warfare turned out to be premature. At the same time, non-kinetic military tools, in particular cognitive ones, retain their weight.
 This article aims at defining the semantic logic of war and peace as relative concepts considered in a single conceptual space. The basic concept in this relationship is war, and peace is its conventional consequence. An analysis of the discursive implementation of both concepts allows us to project them onto political processes and determine the status of war and peace as reality. Particular attention is paid to the power of discourse.
 In conclusion, the authors propose a Ukrainian Peace Strategy project, with 12 points representing the Ukrainian vision of the goals necessary to end the war.

International legal assistance to Ukraine in the fight against russian aggression

The article examines the issue of international assistance to Ukraine in the fight against Russia’s large-scale aggression. This aggression caused the biggest crisis of the system of international security, international law, and international relations after World War II and caused the destruction of the modern international order. At first, Russia’s actions caused a certain disunity in the democratic world. But the treacherous attack and the start of a full-scale war in the center of Europe rallied the leading states of NATO and the European Union. The main and consistent provider of aid to Ukraine is the United States of America and Great Britain. In total, US aid for the first three months of the war amounted to more than 50 billion dollars. Great Britain became a locomotive and an example for the old Europe in the defense and protection of democratic values. The next group of countries that came forward in defense of Ukraine and uncompromising support in the fight against the aggressor were Poland and the Baltic countries. The collective provider of aid to Ukraine is the European Union, NATO, the G7 countries, the IMF and other world, continental and regional organizations and associations. Thanks to military and technical assistance, Ukraine managed to contain the enemy and stabilize the front. In the article, considerable attention is paid to the problems of financial and economic, humanitarian, legal assistance in the investigation of crimes against the civilian population and assistance in the protection of cultural values, etc. A special and important direction of assistance is the support of Ukrainian refugees abroad (according to UN data, as of May 2022, there were 10 million of them) and assistance to displaced persons in the middle of the country. Key words: aggression, military-technical, financial, legal, humanitarian aid, states, international and European organizations.

US - INDO PACIFIC STRATEGY AND ITS IMPLICATIONS ON PAKISTAN

While containing the expansion of China in the area is the primary objective of the Indo-Pacific strategy, it does affect Pakistan's safety in certain ways. In this strategy, the US is supporting India to become a hegemon to full fill its interest. And India is the biggest threat to Pakistan. And it creates a zero-sum situation for Pakistan. This strategy is basically for China but it also has threats to the security of Pakistan. To what extent does Pakistan need an external ally to ensure the balance of power in south Asia? In this research work, I use the balance of power theory to analyse Pakistan's internal security system (IPS). As a direct consequence of this, Pakistan has adopted a strategy of internal and external balance in an effort to lessen the likelihood of an Indian invasion occurring. The modernization of its fleet and the acquisition of cutting-edge armament are its top internal goals. As part of its efforts to achieve internal and external balance, India has engaged in activities such as conducting naval drills in the Indian Ocean and signing a variety of military and maritime projects with China and Russia. These activities are examples of its efforts to strengthen security cooperation with these countries.

STATE POLICY DIRECTIONS IN THE FACE OF WAR CHALLENGES

The article explores the process of directing representatives of public administration in the direction of humanitarian-oriented development of the state in an era of challenges and changes during martial law. The modern world order is in a state of intensive transformation, which involves the redistribution of leverage and control over planetary resources, a globalized financial and economic system, the energy sector, the acquisition of new territories, the regulation and dominance of high-tech communications, the acquisition of control over models and mechanisms of an effective international security system. Emphasizing the problems of the orientation of the national policy of the state in the face of the challenges of war, we realize that there is a war of civilization with anti-civilization, we think that it is a balanced, responsible and effective – functioning policy requires a humanitarian and ethical basis, taking into account the best world and European experience in solving these issues. Hence the main questions that determine the effectiveness of the state's use of objective potencies of human potential a) that and in what way society, the state, the authorities can and can give people of different age categories who have fallen into difficult life circumstances as a result of the loss of home, property, life losses of relatives and friends; b) how to develop the moral and ethical worldview of citizens, and especially the younger generation, which is actively involved in defending the independence of the country in order to motivate society to rebuild the country after victory, reduce tension and aggression in the public environment. The orientation of the state policy is considered in the direction of a successful life start of young people, their personal self-determination and the realization of professional potential for the benefit of society, the state as a whole. A comprehensive solution of these and other issues is possible under the condition of a holistic, clearly verified purposeful policy of the state, the purpose of which is to coordinate the activities of all subjects of the country, to create the most favorable conditions for social adaptation of people in conditions of challenges and threats with the prospect of civilizational development of the country, humanistic changes.

Analysis of Insider Threats in the Healthcare Industry: A Text Mining Approach

To address rapidly growing data breach incidents effectively, healthcare providers need to identify various insider and outsider threats, analyze the vulnerabilities of their internal security systems, and develop more appropriate data security measures against the threats. While there have been studies on trends of data breach incidents, there is a lack of research on the analysis of descriptive contents posted on the data breach reporting website of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) Office for Civil Rights (OCR). Hence, this study develops a novel approach to the analysis of descriptive data breach information with the use of text mining and visualization. Insider threats, vulnerabilities, breach incidents, impacts, and responses to the breaches are analyzed for three data breach types.

Events in eastern and southern Ukraine in retrospect of post-soviet relations

The purpose of the article is to periodize the study of interstate relations and the course of events in eastern and southern Ukraine in the period: 1991-2015. The historical and comparative-legal method was used to solve the problem posed. The article analyzes the events in eastern and southern Ukraine during 1991-2015, taking into account Russia’s influence on social and political processes in post-Soviet Ukraine through the process of forming Ukraine’s international subjectivity, which are permanent factors in bilateral relations with the Russian Federation. In this context, Russia’s inability to recognize Ukraine as a full-fledged international actor at the legal and substantive level is demonstrated. It is concluded that the events in Ukraine not only provoked the strongest confrontation between the two largest states of the post-Soviet space, but also exposed a number of problems throughout the international security system. The armed aggression of the Russian Federation against Ukraine was accompanied by numerous war crimes and crimes against humanity. The competent state authorities must calculate the amount of material and moral damage caused by Russia.