Internal Combustion Engine Vehicles Research Articles

Comparative Life Cycle Assessment of Electric and Internal Combustion Engine Vehicles

This article is devoted to the ecological comparison of electric and internal combustion engine vehicles throughout their entire life cycle, from mining to recycling. A scientifically based approach to a comprehensive environmental assessment of the impact of vehicles on the environment has been developed. To analyze the impact on the environmental situation, aspects such as the consumption of natural resources, waste generation, electricity consumption, emission of harmful substances into the atmosphere, water consumption, and greenhouse gas emissions are taken into consideration. As a result of comparing the environmental impacts of vehicles, it was found that natural resources consumption and production of industrial waste from electric vehicles (EV) is 6 times higher than from internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEV). Harmful substance emissions and greenhouse gas emissions from EV production are 1.65 and 1.5 times higher, respectively. The EV total electricity consumption is 1.4 times higher than that of ICEVs. At the same time, it was revealed that during operation, EVs have higher energy consumption and emit more harmful substances into the atmosphere, but EVs produce less greenhouse gas emissions. It means that at different life cycle stages, EVs have a much higher negative impact on the environment compared to gasoline engine vehicles.

Challenges and Solutions to Meet the Euro 7 NOx Emission Requirements for Diesel Light-Duty Commercial Vehicles

AbstractThe improvement of air quality requires a further reduction of pollutant emissions, especially in urban areas. The Euro 7 regulations aim at the development of a new generation of internal combustion engine vehicles capable of achieving ultra-low pollutant emissions under demanding, real-world operating conditions. They introduce new technical challenges in the holistic design of a vehicle’s powertrain and emission control system. To identify these, four real-world Euro 7 driving scenarios are investigated, covering demanding urban, highway and mountain driving situations. Technical solutions are then presented to address these challenges and ensure compliance with the Euro 7 emission requirements as set out in the latest regulation proposal of the European Commission. The study focuses on the NOx emissions of an N1 Class III light commercial vehicle with 3.5 t mass and a P2 diesel mild-hybrid powertrain. To ensure emission compliance, a Euro 6e exhaust gas aftertreatment system with enlarged catalysts is combined with NOx raw emission improvements. For low-load cold starts, a 4-kW electric heater in the exhaust system is considered in addition to a 2-l DOC and a 6-l DPF with SCR coating. For high-load cycles with high raw emissions, a 10-l underfloor SCR is considered to ensure the necessary deNOx performance.

Vehicles of Transportation Internal Combustion Engine Press the Details of the Institution Inspection

In this article, the engine in the operation of vehicles details, including cylinder-piston group details, and changes in engine performance, piston rod and cylinders in the details of the cylinder when the body presses the flame-touch surface of the cylinder head redistribution of heat flow occurs, their temperature and the change of grooves in the piston-sleeve connection was analyzed. The study aims to improve the reliable performance of internal combustion engine vehicles by focusing on the maintenance and condition of the cylinder-piston group. The research includes a literature review and experimental analysis of the effects of dust and contaminants on the engine's internal components. Comparative tests were conducted on engines before and after cleaning the cylinder-piston group. Findings show that dust particles significantly impact engine performance, causing a 4-6% reduction in power and a 3-4% increase in fuel consumption. Cleaning the cylinder-piston group resulted in a 5.2% increase in engine power and a 4.0% decrease in fuel consumption. The progressive accumulation of soot was found to degrade engine efficiency and cause knocking. Regular maintenance and cleaning of the cylinder-piston group are essential to enhance engine efficiency and longevity. Implementing these practices in vehicle maintenance systems can significantly improve engine performance and reliability.

Global Trends in Electric Vehicle Battery Efficiency and Impact on Sustainable Grid

Over the past decade, transportation electrification has emerged as a pivotal focus of the article. Electric vehicles (EVs) have progressively gained traction in the market, displacing conventional internal combustion engine vehicles. This surge in EV popularity has led to a corresponding increase in the number of charging stations, thereby significantly influencing the power grid (PG). Various charging strategies and grid integration approaches are being devised to mitigate the potential negative impacts of EV charging while optimizing the advantages of integrating EVs with the grid. This paper provides a comprehensive overview of the current state of the EV market, standards, charging infrastructure, and the PG’s response to the impact of EV charging. The article provides a comprehensive assessment of how forthcoming advancements in EV technology, including connected vehicles, autonomous driving, and shared mobility, will intricately influence the integration of EVs with the PG. Ultimately, the article concludes by meticulously analyzing and summarizing both the challenges and recommendations pertinent to the prospective expansion of EV charging infrastructure and grid integration. The proliferation of venture capital investments in nascent start-up ventures specializing in EV and battery technologies has experienced a pronounced surge, reaching an impressive sum of nearly USD 2.1 billion in 2022. This notable increase represents a substantial uptick of 30% compared to the figures recorded in 2021. Furthermore, these investments have been directed towards two key areas: advancements in battery technology and the acquisition of critical minerals. This discernible shift in investment trends underscores the growing recognition of the strategic importance and potential profitability associated with innovations in EV and battery technologies. In 2022, global expenditures on EVs surpassed USD 425 billion, marking a substantial 50% increase compared to the previous year, 2021. Remarkably, a mere 10% of these expenditures can be attributed to governmental support, with the bulk stemming from consumer investments.

Towards Sustainable Mobility: Assessing the Benefits and Implications of Internal Combustion Engine Vehicle Bans and Battery Electric Vehicle Uptake in Qatar

The global shift towards sustainable transportation, primarily through vehicle electrification, is critical in addressing climate change. Qatar presents a knowledge gap with specific challenges and opportunities in this transition. This study calculates the potential reduction in CO2-eq, NOx, and PM2.5 emissions resulting from substituting Internal Combustion Engine Vehicles (ICEVs) with Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs) in Qatar, considering ICEV ban scenarios in 2030, 2035, and 2040, alongside five policy pathways. A Vehicle Stock Model (VSM) simulates Qatar’s fleet evolution from 2022 to 2050, focusing on the vehicle’s operational phase. An ICEV ban in 2030 would result in a 34% cumulative emission reduction in road transport between 2022 and 2050 compared with the Business-as-Usual (BAU) scenario. For NOx and PM2.5, cumulative emissions for the 2030 ICEV ban pathways are approximately 20% and 9% lower, respectively, compared with BAU. This study underscores the necessity of localising environmental strategies to meet Qatar’s specific needs and climate commitments, where results indicate significant emission reductions are possible through BEVs.

Green Wheels, Greener Wallets: Economic Viability of Last-Mile Delivery Fleet Electrification in Case of Latvia

The analysis of internal combustion engine vehicle (ICEV) usage habits in the DPD Latvija company and the study of the specifics of its last-mile delivery transport business will allow to understand whether electromobility solutions can make the company more efficient. The question addressed in the research is whether the electrification of the delivery vehicle fleet can reduce transport expenses for the company and under what conditions. For estimation of direct and indirect costs of transport acquisition and usage Total Cost of Ownership (TCO) is used. The company’s daily operation parameters and technical data of the used vehicles VW e-Crafter and VW Crafter 35 Kasten/long base are considered in the study. Net Present Value (NPV) and Internal Rate of Return (IRR) calculation methods are used for analyzing the investment project. The expense of the creation of electrical vehicle charging infrastructure is not considered, because the company’s daily routine allows to cover all charging processes overnight by using domestic sockets together with Mode 2 chargers. All technical data and calculations were made for deliveries in a city cycle. In financial terms of owning delivery transport, the company is using a 5-year operational lease with 0% first payment. The obtained results in terms of TCO comparison showed a slight advantage by using EV after 5 years of last-mile delivery service per 1 vehicle – 706.98 Euro at 31200km a year or 100km in the working day of 6-day working week (156000km in 5-year is under 160000 warranty condition). The calculation is performed for DPD Latvija 213 ICE vans of a total 240-vehicle fleet. Results of NPV, NPVI, and IRR with a comparison rate of 10.6% for EV case clearly show a sufficiently good return. The Net Present Value of the solution is 89271.92 Euro and the Internal rate of return is 48.05%. The study proves that the electrification of the last-mile delivery company's fleet is economically justified and within 5 years. In the process of electrification, the company will reduce its expenses – by 1.45%, which increases the net annual profit by 0.13%. The main conclusion is that the company will not incur losses by switching to an environmentally friendly vehicle, the capital investment in a realistic scenario pays off already from the 3rd year. Nevertheless, the authors of the study recommend evaluating delivery vehicles with higher driving range parameters, because during peak delivery and seasons with cold weather, the company may experience unplanned downtime and expenses due to the need for additional charging time at public charging networks on the road, that could lead to financial losses and need for TCO calculation corrections.

Comprehensive Comparison of Traditional Engines and Emerging Alternatives

As the natural environment deteriorates, electric vehicles will gradually replace internal combustion engines that use traditional fossil fuels. This paper compares traditional engines to alternatives regarding efficiency, emissions, price, and market share. In brief, alternative engines have advantages over traditional internal combustion engines in terms of efficiency, emissions, and long-term overhead, as evidenced by rising market share. In 2022, the share of electric vehicles in global sales has reached 14%. Compared to traditional internal combustion engine vehicles, electric vehicles have a higher well-to-wheel efficiency, up to more than twice of internal combustion engine vehicles. From a price perspective, electric vehicles have a higher original cost. However, lower maintenance costs allow electric vehicles to achieve the same cost as equivalent combustion engines in 5-8 years. Electric vehicles typically have low well-to-wheel and fuel emissions and are more sustainable. In the future, more research and development are needed for electric vehicles to make them suitable for most cities worldwide. At the same time, research into the traditional internal combustion engine should be addressed, as cleaner, more efficient engines such as the HCCI engines are already available for civilian use.

Numerical Study on Aerodynamic Noise Reduction in Passenger Car with Fender Shape Optimization

Despite the rapid development of vehicle intelligent technology, the aerodynamic noise problem of internal combustion engine vehicles and pure electric vehicles at high speed has always been a growing problem. In this study, the effects of the car body fender shape on the aerodynamic noises of the rearview mirror and wheel region were investigated, and a noise reduction method was also proposed by optimizing the fender shape. To realize the parametric modeling of the fender, five positional variables were selected to define the fender configuration; the free-form deformation (FFD) method was used to establish the response fender model according the DOE schemes, and computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulations are used to obtain the noise results. Then, with the help of the radial basis function (RBF) model and the adaptive simulated annealing (ASA) algorithm, the aerodynamic shape of the fender was optimized to reduce aerodynamic noise. Comparative analysis was then employed to assess flow field characteristics of the optimized model against the original model and elucidate the fender configuration’s contribution to aerodynamic noise reduction and its realization mechanism.

Electric vehicles as an emission mitigation option: expectations and reality

AbstractGlobally, the reliance on thermal power, constituting 67% of electricity generation, prompts questions for many countries regarding the viability of electric vehicles (EVs) for emission reduction in the transportation sector. This study comprehensively analyzes CO2 emissions in the small family car segment, considering engines powered by different energy sources. The analysis is coupled with Worldwide Harmonized Light Vehicle Test Procedure driving profiles, accounting for specific ambient temperature structures representative of densely populated areas in Türkiye. The constructed model incorporates the hourly temperature of the relevant cities and the hourly electricity production mix by considering the indirect emissions and comparing the ICEVs (Internal Combustion Engine Vehicles) and EVs in different time frames from 2015 to 2020. The resulting emissions from each vehicle type in each city and driving profile, along with the ratio of instances in which EVs exhibit higher emissions than ICEVs, are presented.The findings reveal the intricate interplay between vehicle type, climate conditions, and driving profiles. While the urban driving profile emerges as superior for EVs regarding CO2 reduction, offering a comfortable driving experience without range anxiety and mitigating local pollutants, it exhibits less significant carbon emission reductions at lower and higher speed profiles, particularly in cold climate conditions. EVs are not a silver bullet but a valuable technology for emissions reduction under specific conditions. Policymakers are urged to consider factors favoring EVs over ICEVs regarding CO2 emissions, such as driving profiles, time and climatic conditions when formulating investment policies and subsidies. Graphical abstract

Well‐to‐wheels analysis of greenhouse gas emissions for passenger vehicles in Middle East and North Africa

AbstractBattery electric vehicles (BEVs) are widely considered a pathway to achieve low carbon mobility. BEVs emit zero emissions from the tailpipe, but their life cycle carbon reduction compared to gasoline vehicles varies based on primary energy sources, electricity generation, and use efficiency. The Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region is an area rich in fossil fuels, meriting a detailed comparison between the emissions from BEV and other powertrains. We developed a MENA‐specific life cycle model that estimates well‐to‐wheel (WTW) greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from passenger transport with internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs), hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs), plug‐in hybrid electric vehicles, and BEVs. MENA's average WTW GHG emissions for all supply chain steps including combustion emissions from vehicle operation are 767 g/kWh and 84 g CO2eq/MJ for electricity and gasoline, respectively, but are highly variable due to heterogeneity in upstream supply chains. The use of hybrid gasoline ICEVs provides the largest emission reduction opportunity for existing vehicle fleets in 9 of the 16 MENA countries. For these nine countries, replacing gasoline ICEVs with HEVs could, on average, reduce country‐level life cycle GHG emissions by 47%. There is a similar emission reduction opportunity for 14 of the 16 MENA countries when normalizing vehicle efficiencies irrespective of the powertrain shares and other trends in existing vehicle fleets. Future scenario analysis shows that BEVs would have the lowest WTW GHG emissions among all powertrains in most MENA countries only if significantly reduced electricity transmission losses and cleaner grid mix are realized, although a high cost of infrastructure developments is expected.

Battery Electric Vehicles: Travel Characteristics of Early Adopters

Do U.S. households with battery electric vehicles (BEVs) drive less or more than U.S. households with internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs)? Answering this question is important to policymakers and transportation planners concerned with reducing vehicle miles traveled and the emissions of greenhouse gases from transportation. So far, this question has not been answered satisfactorily, possibly because of the relatively low number of EVs in the U.S. until recently, but also because of methodological issues. In this paper, we aim to fill this gap by analyzing data from the 2017 National Household Travel Survey (NHTS). We apply propensity score matching (PSM), a quasi-experimental method, to examine the differences in self-reported annual mileage and calculated daily mileage for various trip purposes among households with only BEVs (BEV-only), households with both BEVs and ICEVs (BEV+), and households without BEVs (non-BEV households). Our findings indicate that households with BEVs drive fewer annual miles than non-BEV households, but typically travel no less than they do for daily activities. This apparent discrepancy is likely due to taking fewer longer trips because the public charging infrastructure was still in its infancy in 2017, and its reliability was questionable. As technological progress is helping to overcome current battery limitations, policymakers may consider measures for fostering fast charging technologies while pondering new measures to fund both the charging infrastructure and the road network.

Detailed modelling and performance analysis of power flow topology in a hybrid electric vehicle having series-parallel architecture

Despite massive investment and carbon-neutral transition goals set around the world, gasoline-based internal combustion engine vehicles still form an absolute majority in the transportation sector. With the advent of technology, access to electricity, uncertainties in fuel prices and health awareness, people worldwide are moving towards a better, reliable, cost-effective and environmentally friendly mode of transportation, a hybrid electric vehicle. Such a vehicle, with its powerful electric motor and compact gasoline-based engine, offers better efficiency in terms of operating cost and reliability. Considering the advent of hybrid electric vehicles taking pace, studies related to its architecture types, power flow dynamics, control and modelling of its various components will form an essential part of the automobile industry and research. This paper proposes a power flow topology for a hybrid electric vehicle with series-parallel architecture. The developed vehicle model with such an architecture type consists of three main sub-systems: the electrical system, the control system and the mechanical system. The presented power flow topology being modelled and analysed in detail in the Simulink tool is being implemented via a mode logic controller, which forms part of the central control system. The developed hybrid electric vehicle model demonstrates various modes of operation, from starting to accelerating to de-accelerating and then finally coming to a complete rest. Each mode yields and explains the following: the vehicle reference speed; the engine and generator turn functions on/off; the dc bus and battery voltage; the motor, battery, and generator current; the motor, generator, and engine speed; engine torque; engine power; throttle demand; and the vehicle’s actual speed. The results thus obtained show that the waveforms associated with such topology, during its various modes of operation, are pretty stable and acceptable, thereby depicting and validating the operation of the developed hybrid electric vehicle model with proposed power flow topology in a precise and transparent manner.

Study of an LLC Converter for Thermoelectric Waste Heat Recovery Integration in Shipboard Microgrids

Static waste heat recovery, by means of thermoelectric generator (TEG) modules, constitutes a fast-growing energy harvesting technology on the way towards greener transportation. Many commercial solutions are already available for small internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles, whereas further development and cost reductions of TEG devices expand their applicability at higher-power transportation means (i.e., ships and aircrafts). In this light, the integration of waste heat recovery based on TEG modules in a shipboard distribution network is studied in this work. Several voltage step-up techniques are considered, whereas the most suitable ones are assessed via the LTspice simulation platform. The design procedure of the selected LLC resonant converter is presented and analyzed in detail. Furthermore, a flexible control strategy is proposed, capable of either output voltage regulation (constant voltage) or maximum power point tracking (MPPT), according to the application demands. Finally, both simulations and experiments (on a suitable laboratory testbench) are performed. The obtained measurements indicate the high efficiency that can be achieved with the LLC converter for a wide operating area as well as the functionality and adequate performance of the control scheme in both operating conditions.

Thermal management system for stable EV battery operation with composite phase change materials

Li-ion battery has been one of the cornerstone of the mobile era especially given the burst sales of Electrical vehicles (EV) which have eclipsed that of internal combustion engine vehicles over last decade. While extensive advances in smart production and technologies make it booming to the development of EV, there have been frequently reported fatal fire incidents originated from excessive thermal hazards of Li-ion batteries. In this paper, we developed a new Li-ion battery thermal management system, by making use of porous Aluminum structure as skeleton and Phase Change Materials (PCMs) as filler, to maintain its optimal operating temperature below 35 °C within a small tolerance range of ± 1 °C fluctuation by continuous heat absorption and heat release during the phase changes of the PCM. The thermal stress and energy consumption in the internal battery pack caused by temperature fluctuations can thus be reduced, ultimately sustaining the overall functional life span of the battery. We envision that our work will advance the operation of EV battery and incubate a versatile framework ranging from thermal management to battery assembly.

Electric transport as one of the ways to achieve climate neutrality in Europe: Problems of development and legal regulation in Ukraine

The study of ways to improve the regulatory framework for the use of green technologies is becoming increasingly important due to the exacerbating climate crisis, which is prompting a reduction in greenhouse gas emissions. The purpose of this study was to identify and describe the gaps in the current legislation on the development of electric transport, as well as to investigate the feasibility and effectiveness of the proposed changes in this area, which are intended to reduce the adverse impact of transport on the environment. The methodology of the study included formal logical, formal legal, comparative legal, as well as other general scientific and special scientific methods of cognition, a review of the current laws of Ukraine and draft laws submitted to the Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine aimed at improving the current legislation on electric transport, including the regulation of the use of personal light electric transport. An analysis of current legislation and draft laws submitted for consideration revealed that some laws contain provisions that hinder the development of electric transport, and the adoption of a series of draft laws could negatively affect the economic viability and ease of use of such transport. The study provided recommendations, based on the approaches of EU countries, to promote and motivate drivers to change their internal combustion engine vehicles to electric ones. The study resulted in a series of proposals to address the identified problems and shortcomings of the current legislation. Specifically, the study suggested ways to encourage drivers to change their internal combustion engine vehicle to an electric one, analysed the ways of developing and popularising personal electric vehicles, examined the current state of development of green infrastructure and availability of electric vehicle charging points, and proposed approaches to solving the issue of recycling electric vehicle batteries. The practical value of this study lies in the possibility of further use of the research findings and conclusions drawn therein to address the gaps in current legislation by submitting a draft law with the proposed relevant amendments

Predictive sustainability analysis applied to an automotive design case study.

The paper deals with a predictive sustainability analysis applied to the design of automotive components in lightweight perspective. The analysis is conducted through the integration of the traditional Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) methodology with tailored forecasting algorithms able to provide a predictive evaluation of Climate Change (CC) by elaboration data contained in commercial environmental datasets. The comparison is referred to the entire Life Cycle (LC) of the system (including production, use and End-of-Life) according to a “from cradle to grave approach”.A medium-class car rear crash management system is used as case study, assessing the potential benefits related to the substitution of conventional steel with 6000/7000 series aluminium alloys, along with other minor design changes. Particularly, the study compares the environmental profile of the two solutions based on the CC impact category in application to both an Internal Combustion Engine Vehicle (ICEV) and a Battery Electric Vehicle (BEV).The results show the potentiality of the proposed methodology, highlighting possible improvements/worsenings: new materials and manufacturing technologies adopted in the lightweight rear crash management system entail contrasting environmental effects depending on LC phases, that is, increased CO2eq in production (around 125% - mainly due to the strong energy intensity of aluminium supply chain) and reduced burdens in use and EoL (primarily provided by component mass reduction). That said, the influence of different boundary conditions on the predictive models is significant only for the electricity produced to energize the BEV configuration, leading to an overall variability of comparison results ranging within 3-30% for the BEV case study.

Clean energy synergy with electric vehicles: Insights into carbon footprint

This study empirically examines the impact of Electric Vehicles (EVs) and clean energy adoption on carbon footprints. With growing concerns over climate change and the need to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, the transition to electric vehicles and clean energy sources has gained significant attention as potential solutions. This research investigates the relationship between the adoption of EVs and clean energy technologies and their subsequent effect on carbon footprints. The study applied the Generalised Method Moments (GMM) on the data sourced from the International Energy Agency (IEA) and the World Development Indicators (WDI) for the period 2011–2021 covering 27 countries. The findings reveal a strong correlation between the adoption of EVs and reductions in carbon footprints. It shows that a 1 % increase in renewable electricity output would result in a 0.5 % decline in carbon footprints. This implies that, as EV sales increase, the overall carbon emissions from the transportation sector decrease, primarily due to the lower emissions associated with electric vehicles compared to conventional internal combustion engine vehicles. Additionally, the study finds that the integration of clean energy sources into the electricity grid further contributes to carbon footprint reductions. The use of renewable energy in charging EVs minimizes the indirect emissions associated with electricity generation. The research concludes that the widespread adoption of EVs and clean energy sources has the potential to significantly reduce carbon footprints and mitigate the impact of climate change. However, it emphasizes the importance of continued technological advancements, increased availability of charging infrastructure, and supportive government policies to accelerate the transition towards a low-carbon transportation and energy system. Therefore, the study highlights the need for collaborative efforts among governments, industry stakeholders, and individuals to foster sustainable practices and achieve a more environmentally friendly future.

A Green Vehicle Adoptions and Its Impediments: A Bibliometric Review

The green vehicle is responsible for considerably lower emissions than conventional internal combustion engine vehicles and is one of the important components of meeting global commitments on climate change. However, the consumers’ adoption is far beyond expectations. To this end, this paper contributes to the extant literature on green vehicle adoption and its impediments by assessing the publication trends and network visualization leveraging the bibliometric analysis method. Meanwhile, key research clusters are outlined and visualized to analyse the underlying knowledge structure. The 347 articles collected from the Scopus database were later analysed using bibliometric tools, VOSviewer, and Harzing’s Publish or Perish. The results presented in this paper assist researchers with a structured understanding and knowledge of green vehicle adoption research and its impediments.

Review of Fuel-Cell Electric Vehicles

This paper presents an overview of the status and future prospects of fuel-cell electric vehicles (FC-EVs). As global concerns about emissions escalate, FC-EVs have emerged as a promising substitute for traditional internal combustion engine vehicles. This paper discusses the fundamentals of fuel-cell technology considering the major types of fuel cells that have been researched and delves into the most suitable fuel cells for FC-EV applications, including comparisons with mainstream vehicle technologies. The present state of FC-EVs, ongoing research, and the challenges and opportunities that need to be accounted for are discussed. Furthermore, the comparison between promising proton-exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) and solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC) technologies used in EVs provides valuable insights into their respective strengths and challenges. By synthesizing these aspects, the paper aims to provide a comprehensive understanding and facilitate decision-making for future advancements in sustainable FC-EV transportation, thereby contributing to the realization of a cleaner, greener, and more environmentally friendly future.

Fire Risk Mitigation Strategies for Electric and Hydrogen Vehicle Car Parks

As the use of eco-friendly vehicles, such as electric and hydrogen vehicles, is rapidly increasing, the related infrastructure is also expanding, and they have become common in parking areas. The fire safety design of a car park is based on the existing data of internal combustion engine vehicles; therefore, the characteristics of eco-friendly vehicles must be reflected. This study investigated the heat release rate of internal combustion engine vehicles, electric vehicles, and hydrogen vehicles using real-scale fire test data and analyzed the effects of curb weight and battery capacity. The fire growth rate and maximum heat release rate of electric and hydrogen vehicles were similar to those of internal combustion engine vehicles, except for the batteries and hydrogen gas, which are the energy sources of electric and hydrogen vehicles, respectively. When ignited from the battery of an electric vehicle, the fire grew rapidly. When the thermally activated pressure relief device was activated in the storage vessel of a hydrogen vehicle, the heat release rate instantaneously increased to 14.5 MW. To improve fire safety in car parks, the curb weight and fire resistance structure must be designed to reflect the increase in plastic interior materials and battery capacity of vehicles, and firefighting facilities must be installed based on vehicles with greater fire severity.