Interfacial Mechanism Research Articles

Investigation of Vibration Damping Characteristics of Natural Rubber Composites Reinforced with Waste Carbonaceous Fillers

The present work aims to utilize two different waste carbonaceous fillers, i.e., recycled carbon black (RCB) (industrial waste) and recycled graphite (RGP) (Battery waste), for the fabrication of vibration damping composites. Three types of composites were prepared, i.e., Neat NR, NR/RCB20, and NR/RGP20, using natural rubber (NR) matrix according to the standard ASTM D 3182-21a. The physical and mechanical properties of developed composites were investigated as per the standard ASTM D792-20 and ASTM D412-16. Moreover, the interfacial damping mechanism between polymer matrix, RCB, and RGP fillers was studied by determining vibration-damping properties as per standard ASTM E756-05. Furthermore, the influence of different parameters, such as particle size, carbon content, and surface area, of carbonaceous fillers on the resulting damping characteristics of developed composites was investigated through SEM, CHNS, and BET analysis. The result suggests that with the addition of 20 phr of RCB and RGP in the polymer matrix, the density of NR/RCB20 and NR/RGP20 composites were increased by ~ 7.08% and ~ 14.68%, respectively. Moreover, the mechanical and vibration damping properties of NR/RCB20 and NR/RGP20 composites show better performance than Neat NR composite.

Fabrication of water-in-oil high internal phase pickering emulsion using edible sucrose stearate/soybean phosphatidylethanolamine complex: Interfacial properties and stabilization mechanism

This study aimed to develop an edible water-in-oil high internal phase Pickering emulsion (W/O-HIPPE) using 1.0 wt% of biocompatible and biodegradable sucrose stearate (SE)/soybean phosphatidylethanolamine (SP) complex. Results showed that crystal self-assembly of SE was changed with SP in SE/SP complexes (SE/SP ratio = 0.75:0.25, 0.5:0.5), exhibiting a variation from large-size four clover-like to small-size granular-like shapes, which contributed to closely packing at the interface. Hydrophilicity was also increased with a θ reducing from 136.2° to 118.2°. The higher hydrophilicity of the complex facilitated interfacial adsorption, which was beneficial in reducing interfacial tension more largely (decreased by 78.6%). The interfacial layer was generated and acted as a physical barrier against droplet coalescence and phase inversion, forming W/O-HIPPEs with long-term stability over 30 days. This study provided guidance for food-grade W/O-HIPPE formation.

Nanoscale Insights into the Mechanical Behavior of Interfacial Composite Structures between Calcium Silicate Hydrate/Calcium Hydroxide and Silica

The failure of the interfacial transition zone has been identified as the primary cause of damage and deterioration in cement-based materials. To further understand the interfacial failure mechanism, interfacial composite structures between the main hydration products of ordinary Portland cement (OPC), calcium silicate hydrate (CSH) and calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2), and silica (SiO2) were constructed while considering their anisotropy. Afterwards, uniaxial tensile tests were conducted using molecular dynamics (MD) simulations. Our results showed that the interfacial zones (IZs) of interfacial composite structures tended to have relatively lower densities than those of the bulk, and the anisotropy of the hydration products had almost no effect on the IZ being a low-density zone. Interfacial composite structures with different configurations exhibited diverse nanomechanical behaviors in terms of their ultimate strength, stress–strain relationship and fracture evaluation. A higher strain rate contributed to a higher ultimate strength and a more prolonged decline in the residual strength. In the interfacial composite structures, both CSH and Ca(OH)2 exhibited ruptures of the Ca-O bond as the primary atomic pair during the tensile process. The plastic damage characteristics of the interfacial composite structures during the tensile process were assessed by analyzing the normalized number of broken Ca-O bonds, which also aligned with the atomic chain break characteristics evident in the per-atom stress map.

Towards flexible and healable strain sensors via a modulated interface between Ti3C2 MXene and epoxidized natural rubber

Critical issues such as inferior mechanical properties, low healing efficiency, complex repair conditions, etc., have posed a great threat to the intelligent sensing implementation of elastomers. Herein, we delicately design Ti3C2 MXene/epoxidized natural rubber (ENR) elastomer composites with superior mechanical and self-healing properties by controlling the confine structure and surface hydroxyl group number of Ti3C2 MXene targeting the realization of advanced strain sensors. The synchrotron radiation X-ray three-dimensional nano-computed tomography results confirm the uniform distribution and of Ti3C2 MXene in ENR, and the outstanding structural stability of composite elastomer throughout the loading and unloading procedure. Such versatile design leads to the synchronous manipulation of the interface density and strength of the composite, maximizing the dynamic non-covalent bond interactions between Ti3C2 MXene and ENR. As a result, the composite elastomer display a high mechanical strength of 4.93 MPa, and a remarkable self-healing efficiency of ∼98% at room temperature, thereby affording superior intelligent strain sensing application. Impressively, the detection range and response time are up to 0.1∼800% strain, and 50 ms, respectively, outperforming the state-of-art self-healable strain sensors. This investigation not only provides a new interfacial engineering strategy for designing elastomer composites with advanced intelligent sensing functions but also propels the underlying interfacial working mechanism deciphering.

Interfacial mechanism of hydrogel with controllable thickness for stable drag reduction

Surface wettability plays a significant role in reducing solid-liquid frictional resistance, especially the superhydrophilic/hydrophilic interface because of its excellent thermodynamic stability. In this work, poly(acrylic acid)-poly(acrylamide) (PAA–PAM) hydrogel coatings with different thicknesses were prepared in situ by polydopamine (PDA)-UV assisted surface catalytically initiated radical polymerization. Fluid drag reduction performance of hydrogel surface was measured using a rotational rheometer by the plate-plate mode. The experimental results showed that the average drag reduction of hydrogel surface could reach up to about 56% in Couette flow, which was mainly due to the interfacial polymerization phenomenon that enhanced the ability of hydration layer to delay the momentum dissipation between fluid layers and the diffusion behavior of surface. The proposed drag reduction mechanism of hydrogel surface was expected to shed new light on hydrogel-liquid interface interaction and provide a new way for the development of steady-state drag reduction methods.

Overview of interfacial interaction mechanisms of bubble-mineral systems at the nanoscale

Overview of interfacial interaction mechanisms of bubble-mineral systems at the nanoscale

Effects of CNT microstructural characteristics on the interfacial enhancement mechanism of carbon fiber reinforced epoxy composites via molecular dynamics simulations

Numerous studies have concentrated on improving the mechanical properties of carbon fiber reinforced polymer composite (CFRP) through the modification of carbon fiber (CF) with carbon nanotubes (CNTs). However, most of them were confined to describing experimental phenomena. In this study, molecular dynamics (MD) simulation was used to systematically reveal the effect of CNT nanostructures on the interfacial reinforcement of CF/epoxy. An all-atom modeling method was used to provide a quantitative description of the CF-CNT/polymer interface characteristic structure. Computational results indicate that nanotubes can protect the intra- and intermolecular interactions of epoxy segments from being destroyed, thereby preventing the initiation and propagation of micro-defects during interfacial deterioration. The mechanical competition between the interface and polymer bulk leads to different failure mechanisms, and the strengthened interface region has fewer atoms leaving the equilibrium state during tensile deformation. The insertion of CNTs on the fiber surface, specifically increasing their length, diameter, distribution density, or orientation, can improve interfacial tensile strength (up to +62.11 %) and delay the detachment of epoxy molecules from the CF. Additionally, MD outcomes were verified by synthesizing CNTs onto CF using an electric field-assisted flame synthesis approach, leading to improvement in IFSS (+62.67 %) and ILSS (+27.78 %).

Molecular dynamics simulation of interfacial heat transfer behavior during the boiling of low-boiling-point organic fluid

Boiling heat transfer of low-boiling-point working fluid is one of the promising heat dissipation technologies commonly used in electronic equipment cooling. The study on interfacial heat transfer mechanism is of great significance to improve both heat removal capacity and heat dissipation efficiency. In this work, 1,1,1,2-tetrafluoroethane (R134a) was used as the working fluid, and the interfacial boiling behavior of R134a under different initial thicknesses of liquid film (δ0), solid-liquid interaction force and initial temperature (T0) was analyzed by molecular dynamics (MD) method. In the simulation, δ0 changes from 2.5 to 7.5 nm, the energy coefficient (α) characterizing solid-liquid interaction force changes from 0.25 to 4, T0 ranges from 180 to 200 K, and the temperature difference between the solid substrate and the liquid film is 220 K (i.e., the superheat for boiling). The results show that only δ0 could significantly alter the boiling mode of R134a.When δ0 = 2.5 nm, it shows thin film boiling, otherwise as δ0 gets thicker, it shifts into explosive boiling mode. Under the explosive boiling mode, the total thermal resistance (Rtot) consists of three parts, i.e., the solid interface thermal resistance (RW), thermal resistance of vapor layer (RV), and vapor-liquid interface thermal resistance above layer (RV-L). RV contributes the most to Rtot. However, during the thin film boiling, only RW contributes to Rtot. With the increase of δ0 and α, Rtot presents the similar trend, i.e., increasing first and decreasing afterwards. When δ0 = 7.5 nm and α is 1, Rtot reaches to the highest value of 3.49×10−8 K‧m2/W. For the influence of T0, it oppositely affects Rtot. Overall, the increase of α and T0 and the decrease of δ0 are all beneficial to accelerate the boiling of R134a.

Robust reactive oxygen species production in interfacial reaction between organic acids and biochar: The combined effect of electron acceptance and electron conduction

Interfacial electron transport and reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation in the redox action between biochar (BC) and low-molecular-weight organic acids (LMWOAs) have been overlooked during the utilization of BC in soil amelioration/remediation. Herein, BC and N-doped BC (NBC) with various physicochemical properties were prepared at pyrolysis temperatures of 350, 550 and 750 °C (namely BC/NBC350, 550 and 750) and their interactions with LMWOAs were systematically investigated. Results of ROS quenching and electrochemical cell experiments revealed that BC/NBC could strongly interact with LMWOAs, especially ascorbic acid (AA), and acted as an electron shuttle to mediate one electron transfer from AA to oxygen to generate O2•−, followed by the robust generation of H2O2 and •OH. Interestingly, the generation rates of •OH and H2O2 in the NBC-AA system were significantly higher than that in the BC-AA system, of which the NBC550-AA system exhibited the best performance, enabling its superior ability in bisphenol A degradation. Different from conventional wisdom, the electron shuttle capacity depended on a combined aromatization degree and electron-accepting capacity of BC/NBC. These findings complement the interfacial electron transfer mechanism during the natural BC-LMWOAs interaction and provide new inspiration for the development of green and efficient organic pollutant removal technologies.

Unraveling the Solvent Effect on Solid-Electrolyte Interphase Formation for Sodium Metal Batteries.

Ether-based electrolytes are considered as an ideal electrolyte system for sodium metal batteries (SMBs) due to their superior compatibility with the sodium metal anode (SMA). However, the selection principle of ether solvents and the impact on solid electrolyte interphase formation are still unclear. Herein, we systematically compare the chain ether-based electrolyte and understand the relationship between the solvation structure and the interphasial properties. The linear ether solvent molecules with different terminal group lengths demonstrate remarkably distinct solvation effects, thus leading to different electrochemical performance as well as deposition morphologies for SMBs. Computational calculations and comprehensive characterizations indicate that the terminal group length significantly regulates the electrolyte solvation structure and consequently influences the interfacial reaction mechanism of electrolytes on SMA. Cryogenic electron microscopy clearly reveals the difference in solid electrolyte interphase in various ether-based electrolytes. As a result, the 1,2-diethoxyethane-based electrolyte enables a high Coulombic efficiency of 99.9 %, which also realizes the stable cycling of Na||Na3 V2 (PO4 )3 full cell with a mass loading of ≈9 mg cm-2 over 500 cycles.

Achieving superior pyroresistive reproducibility at HDPE/PVDF composites with tailored conductive phase size

AbstractCommercial conductive polymer composites (CPCs) with positive temperature coefficient (PTC) behavior usually suffer from inherent poor reproducibility of pyroresistive property. Herein, a conductive carbon black (CB)/high density polyethylene (HDPE)/polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) composite with outstanding PTC reproducibility were prepared through introducing cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) grafted with methyl methacrylate (CNC‐g‐PMMA). Following the minimum interfacial energy mechanism, the CNC‐g‐PMMA tends to locate in PVDF of binary polymer composites. A much finer morphology of conductive CB/HDPE phase is hence obtained owing to the increasement of PVDF/HDPE viscosity ratio by introducing CNC‐g‐PMMA. Undergoing multiple repeated temperature cycles, the room temperature resistance and PTC intensity of as‐prepared material keep almost unchanged, which demonstrates superior PTC reproducibility. The improving mechanism of PTC reproducibility has also been illustrated in detail. This research provides a facile and valid strategy to enhance the PTC reproducibility and will vastly expand the application of PTC composites in the field of intelligent temperature management.Highlights Assembling binary polymer‐based PTC materials with cocontinuous structure Nanocrystals enables conductive HDPE phase with finer morphology. The precise ranges of viscosity ratio ensure the co‐continuous morphology. Small conductive phase size enhances P reproducibility. Narrow spatial domain restricts the self‐aggregation of conductive fillers.

Insights into Interfacial Mechanism of CeO2/Silicon and Atomic-Scale Removal Process during Chemo-Mechanical Grinding of Silicon.

Chemo-mechanical grinding (CMG) is a valid processing method to achieve a low-damage surface of silicon. However, the atomic interfacial mechanism during the CMG is still unclear. Herein, the CMG process of silicon was investigated using first principles and frictional wear tests in which the effects of pressure and speed on the interfacial reaction were comprehensively analyzed. Simulations showed that the formation and breakage of chemical bonds occurred at the CeO2/silicon interface during CMG, and the newly formed chemical bonds were stronger than those on the silicon surface. Also, it was found that the pressure and speed improved the materials removal rate by means of accelerating the interfacial chemical reactions, which is also verified by frictional wear tests. This study provides new insights into the atomic interfacial mechanism during silicon CMG.

Regulation of interfacial mechanics of soy protein via co-extraction with flaxseed protein for efficient fabrication of foams and emulsions

Enrichment of plant proteins with functionality is of great importance for expanding their application in food formulations. This study proposed an innovation to co-enrich soy protein and flaxseed protein to act as efficient interfacial stabilizers for generating foams and emulsions. The structure, interfacial properties, and functionalities of the soy protein-flaxseed protein natural nanoparticles (SFNPs) obtained by alkali extraction-isoelectric precipitation (AE) and salt extraction-dialysis (SE) methods were investigated. Overall, the foamability of AE-SFNPs (194.67 %) was 1.45-fold that of SE-SFNPs, due to their more flexible structure, smaller particle size, and suitable surface wettability, promoting diffusion and adsorption at the air–water interface. AE-SFNPs showed higher emulsion stability (140.89 min), probably because the adsorbed AE-SFNPs with smaller size displayed soft particle-like properties and stronger interfacial flexibility, and therefore could densely and evenly arrange at the interface, facilitating the formation of a stiff and solid-like interfacial layer, beneficial for more stable emulsion formation. The findings may innovatively expand the applications of SFNPs as food ingredients.

Atomistic Insights into Interfacial Optimization Mechanism for Achieving Ultralow-Friction Amorphous Carbon Films under Solid-Liquid Composite Conditions.

The combination of fluid lubricants and textured amorphous carbon (a-C) can provide an ultralow friction state, which can improve the reliability and service life of dynamic machinery. However, the coupling effects of the contact pressure and oil content on the friction-reducing efficiency is still lack of study, and the corresponding friction mechanism is also not fully understood, which cannot be achieved by experiment due to the limitation of in situ characterization. In this study, using the reactive molecular dynamics simulation, the insight into the evolution of interfacial structures induced by both contact pressures and oil contents on a-C surface was systematically investigated to explore the fundamental mechanism. In particular, the friction difference between textured and untextured a-C films was evaluated comparatively. Results indicate that the tribological performance strongly depends on the interfacial lubrication state, which is jointly determined by the oil content and contact pressure; the best operating condition to achieve ultralow friction coefficient (0.002) is obtained, and the evolution of friction coefficient with oil content and contact pressure is highly dominated by the lubricant mobility, cross-linking between mating a-C surfaces, or competition/synergy of the H stress state from the lubricant with interfacial passivation. Furthermore, the difference in friction reduction between textured and untextured systems is unveiled; with the increase of contact pressure, the role of texturing a-C surface in antifriction changes from positive to negative effect, which is related to the transformation of interfacial hybridized structure and anomalous flow of lubricant. These results can significantly enhance the understanding of composite lubrication systems through computation and also provide a roadmap for the R&D of the advanced lubrication system according to the working conditions.

Unveiling the synergistic interplay of appropriate oxygen vacancies and S-scheme heterojunction structures in OVs-TiO2/g-C3N4 catalyst for efficient RhB photodegradation and H2 production

This study presents a facile synthesis for an efficient S-scheme OVs-TiO2/g-C3N4 heterojunction (OVs-TCN) enriched with oxygen vacancies, demonstrating exceptional performance in photocatalytic RhB degradation and H2 production. Controlled introduction of g-C3N4 into OVs-TiO2 modulates appropriate oxygen vacancies within the OVs-TCN10 heterojunction. Under visible irradiation, OVs-TCN10 achieves a remarkable 97.2 % degradation of RhB over 120 min with 5 cycles, with an apparent rate constant of 0.021 min−1. Impressively, OVs-TCN10 exhibits significant H2 production from RhB degradation, reaching a rate of 150 µmol h−1 under visible irradiation for 30 h, with a 15 % AQY at 420 nm. Experimental and DFT analyses of charge density difference, along with Mulliken analysis at the OVs-TiO2/g-C3N4 interface, confirm the existence of an intrinsic electric field flowing from g-C3N4 to OVs-TiO2. This internal electric field enhances photogenerated electron-hole separation and transfer, facilitating the redox process via the S-scheme mechanism in the heterojunction for photocatalytic RhB degradation and H2 production. This work offers new insights into the controlled defects and interfacial mechanisms in heterojunctions, propelling advanced photocatalytic applications.

How polymer infiltration affects metal-organic frameworks-based facilitated hybrid membrane performances for CO2 separation

Membrane separation technology has been widely used in the separation and capture of CO2 to reduce carbon emissions. The performances of facilitated hybrid membranes (FHMs) can be improved by properly adding metal-organic framework (MOF)-based nanoparticles (NPs) and modifying polymers to the polymer matrix. Grafting and blending methods are widely used to introduce modifying polymers to improve the compatibility between NPs and the polymer matrix, and the performance of FHMs for CO2 separation. However, the separation performance of FHMs decreases significantly when the long chains of the polymer infiltrate into the pores of the MOF at the interface between the modifying polymer and MOF. To in-depth understand the nano-scale polymer-NPs interfacial interaction mechanism of the grafting and blending methods, we herein employed molecular dynamic (MD) simulation method combined with experiments to investigate the interface between NPs of Cu-MOF (Cu-BDC) and four commonly used modifying polymers (PEG, polyethylene glycol; PEI, polyethylenimine; PVA, polyvinyl alcohol; PPy, polypyrrole) with PVDF (polyvinylidene difluoride) as the polymer matrix. The results showed that the blending method for modification can effectively avoid the polymer blockage in Cu-BDC pores by using four modifying polymers, while the grafting method caused polymer infiltration for PEG and PEI. The relationship between the polymer diameter and the pore limiting diameter (PLD) of the Cu-BDC was evaluated to analyze the polymer infiltration effect. FHMs of Cu-BDC/PEG@PVDF were synthesized based on the MD simulation results, which showed excellent CO2 separation performance due to the good compatibility between the Cu-BDC and the modified matrix polymer. This work offers an insight in nano-scale into the interface design between the MOF and the polymer for FHMs separating CO2.

Enhancing stability of Pickering emulsions: Insights into the interfacial dynamics of Zein-MCT composite nanoparticles

The interfacial adsorption properties of colloidal particles were critical to the formation and stability of Pickering emulsions. This study aimed to improve the surface hydrophobicity, adsorption properties of Zein nanoparticles (ZN) by using the hydrophobic substance Medium-chain triglyceride (MCT) to form hybrid nanoparticles (ZMN). We investigated the impact of varying Zein/MCT ratios on the interfacial stabilization mechanism of Pickering emulsions and deciphered the relationship between adsorption properties, the rheological behavior of interfacial layer, and emulsion stability. Results revealed that the surface hydrophobicity of nanoparticles affected their adsorption properties as well as the rheological behavior of the composite interface. Specifically, an increase in the Zein/MCT ratio promoted the exposure of hydrophobic groups, increased the surface hydrophobicity of ZMN. This further led to an enhanced diffusion ZMN from the aqueous phase to the interface (Kdiff increased from 0.033 mNm−1s−0.5 to 0.095 mNm−1s−0.5) and the rate of rearrangement at the interface (KR increased from −0.016 mNm−1s−0.5 to −0.009 mNm−1s−0.5) which resulted in rapid adsorption and densely accumulation of ZMN at the interface. Furthermore, the adsorption properties of the nanoparticles directly influenced the viscoelastic and strain properties of the interfacial layer. The interfacial layer composed of ZMN exhibited enhanced viscoelasticity, increasing from 4 mN/m to 7 mN/m at low frequencies and from 6.8 mN/m to 12.5 mN/m at high frequencies. It also exhibited lower viscous dissipation and a stronger deformation response under varying external pressures. As a consequence, the rate and extent of droplet aggregation in ZMN stabilized emulsions (ZMNPEs) were reduced, attributing to the high viscoelasticity as well as the strong strain response of the interfacial layer. This research not only introduces a novel strategy to enhance the stability of Pickering emulsions using Zein-MCT composite nanoparticles, but also deepens our understanding of the interplay between particle adsorption properties, interfacial rheology, and emulsion stability.

Interfacial regulation and fracture mechanism of Al–Si/SiC composites infiltrated under super-gravity field

We reported a novel method to prepare Al–Si/SiC composites infiltrated under super-gravity field without Mg addition. Noted that centrifugal force acted as the main driving force to overcome the penetration resistance, making it feasible to obtain the Al–Si/SiC composite with high relative density (≥99.3 %). The interfacial reaction between Al and SiC was retarded by Si addition under super-gravity field. Interestingly, the rod-like eutectic Si was detected at Al–SiC interface with semi-continuous distribution, leading to the excellent bending strength (342.6 ± 1.0 MPa), enhanced thermal conductivity (173 W/m K at 373 K), and relatively low coefficient of thermal expansion (8.90 × 10−6 K−1 ranged from 323 to 373 K). The interfacial regulation and fracture mechanism were discussed in details.

Prediction of crack growth at trailing edge bondlines of a wind turbine rotor blade for the assessment of remaining service life

Debonding along trailing-edge joint of a wind turbine rotor blade is one of the often reported failure modes during the rotor blade maintenance inspections. This study focuses on buckling-induced debonding along the trailing edge under in-plane compressive loads due to the gravity forces on the rotor blade. With a priori known debond crack length, an analytical model is used for predicting debond growth rate and assessing the time that takes the crack to reach a critical length. For the growth rate prediction, required input parameters are size of the initial debonding, laminate and adhesive layer thicknesses, elastic and interfacial fracture mechanics properties, gravitational load distribution and position of the initial debonding. The damage model is implemented in excel spreadsheet tool. The predictions of the analytical model were compared with the results from 3D finite element simulations and the difference between the results (energy release rate) was 8%. This study demonstrates how damage specific tools can be developed for predicting remaining useful life of rotor blades.

Effect of sintering conditions on colossal dielectric properties of (Tb1/2Nb1/2)0.01Ti0.99O2 ceramics

In this study, we investigated various sintering temperatures (1200 °C−1450 °C) and durations (2–6 h) conditions for preparing (Tb1/2Nb1/2)0.01Ti0.99O2 (TNTO) ceramics. By employing high sintering temperatures (≥1350 °C) and extended sintering durations (≥4 h), we successfully achieved ultra–high dielectric permittivity values (ε′ ∼ 2.2 − 4.1 × 104) and remarkably low loss tangent values (∼0.025−0.079). Remarkably, the temperature coefficient of the TNTO ceramic, sintered at 1350 °C, exhibited exceptional stability, maintaining a value of approximately 15% even at 200 °C. Additionally, we examined the phase structure and microstructure of the TNTO ceramics to gain insights into their colossal permittivity (CP) behavior. The analysis revealed the presence of rutile TiO2 and TbNbTiO6 phases, and the ceramics exhibited a high–density microstructure under high–temperature sintering conditions. The impedance spectroscopy analysis revealed that the primary contributor to the observed CP behavior was the interfacial polarization mechanism. The observed increase in the ε′ value, correlated with the enlargement of the average grain size, can be attributed to the effect of the internal barrier layer capacitor. However, when the sintering time ≥4 h, the grain size did not significantly affect the ε′ value, possibly due to reaching the maximum capacity of electron production for the interfacial polarization process (i.e., the maximum intensity of polarizability). This study provides valuable insights into optimizing the sintering conditions for TNTO ceramics and related compounds, laying the groundwork for the development of a new CP oxide suitable for practical applications.