Intended Nationally Determined Contributions Research Articles

Assessing the Feasibility of Climate Policies of Japan, Latvia and Lithuania to Reach the Targets of the Paris Agreement

The study compares the most recent developments in energy policies of Japan, Lithuania and Latvia as a way to mitigate climate change. Latvia, Lithuania and Japan have all pledged to reach net zero by 2050 but face significant challenges, namely the dependence on energy imports in the form of fossil fuels, as they keep dominating the final energy supply. All three countries have a goal to sharply reduce this dependence, with Lithuania and Latvia even striving to become net energy exporters by focusing almost entirely on renewable energy. Japan, on the other hand, also aim to boost a renewable energy share, yet focuses more on the diversification of imported energy sources. The study attempts to discuss the differing approaches in climate change mitigation in Japan as compared to Latvia and Lithuania. The ambition of each country is estimated by Intended Nationally Determined Contributions (INDCs), the roadmap to reduce the emissions in different sectors as enshrined in the climate strategy of each country, and the penetration of the renewable energy sector, estimating the scope of the ambition and implementation gaps compared to the goals set by the Paris Agreement. The study also estimates the impact of external impacts, namely the COVID-19 pandemic and the Russian invasion of Ukraine in shaping climate change policies. Therefore, this study offers a comprehensive outlook on what needs to be achieved so that all three countries could be role models to follow in the climate policy. All three countries could collaborate on solar power, off-shore wind power, and hydrogen technologies. There have already been joint projects between Japan and the EU on advanced biofuels and the new generation of concentrator photovoltaics. However, there are significant differences regarding the role of ammonia and hydrogen production in the Climate change policy strategies of the three countries. Some contributing sectors are left behind and the current climate change strategies, even if properly implemented, may not be 2°C-compatible, let alone 1.5°C-compatible. The policies look even direr for a fair share target, and the implementation gap generally remains wide for the 2024-2030 period.

Improving plot-level above ground biomass estimation in tropical Indian forests

Accurate plot-level estimates of above ground biomass (AGB) are crucial for reducing uncertainty in spatial AGB quantification, a key requirement for Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation framework (REDD+) and achieving Intended Nationally Determined Contributions (INDC) goals. This study explores the impact of plot size, selection and use of height-diameter (H–D) model, and allometric models on plot-level AGB estimation in tropical Indian forests. We analyze a dataset of 8179 tree measurements from 51 one-hectare plots across four tropical sites to investigate these factors and improve estimation accuracy. Our findings highlight the importance of locally derived H–D models for superior accuracy. We propose two H–D models for improved plot-level AGB estimation accuracy in tropical Indian forests: a general model with a residual standard error (RSE) of 4.18 m and a forest type-specific model with a RSE of 3.65 m. These models outperform global models, which significantly underestimate tree height by up to 51.3% and overestimate by 43.4% across our sites. The developed H–D models were evaluated using spatial cross-validation to ensure broader applicability across Indian tropical forests. Further, we evaluated the impact of the choice of the allometric model on plot-level AGB estimation using the prevalent models (local destructive models by the Forest Survey of India and global pantropical models). Our results indicate minimal variability between the local destructive models and the pantropical model when height measurements are derived from this study's developed H–D models. We have also investigated the effect of plot size on plot-level AGB estimation using synthetic plots generated from 1-ha plot data. Notably, the relative error diminishes from approximately 22% to about 5% as plot size increases from 0.04 ha (20x20m) to 0.49 ha (70x70m) across all sites, and we recommend field plots of size ≥0.5 ha for AGB mapping over Tropical Indian Forests. By making this data publicly available, this study paves the way for more accurate spatial AGB mapping in tropical Indian forests, ultimately contributing to better forest management.

The development, changes and responses of the European Union carbon border adjustment mechanism in the context of global energy transition

Energy production and consumption is the primary source of global carbon emissions. In order to achieve the goal of Intended Nationally Determined Contributions (INDCs) in the Paris Agreement, countries around the world have set off an upsurge of energy transition. The EU has ambitious INDCs. The Energy crisis has made it accelerate the energy transition, thus promoting the development of its circular economy. However, the EU focuses on carbon leakage during this process. To address this issue and maintain the competitiveness of EU industries during the transition, the EU proposed the Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM). The EU proposed the background and development process of the CBAM, and organized the core content of the tripartite plan and final bill of the European Commission, European Parliament, and European Council. What's more, the framework system of the CBAM is clarified, and further analysis is conducted on the future development of CBAM of the EU based on various factors. In response to the new development of the CBAM, it is suggested that developing countries should adhere to the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities on the international front and attempt to build and improve a carbon market system to partially offset carbon tariffs. Finally, we should strengthen the research on the response plan of the EU CBAM and establish an effective communication mechanism with the EU, in order to better cope with the impact of the CBAM on the trade of developing countries in the future.

Strategic pathways to sustainable energy: Carbon emission pinch analysis for Bangladesh's electricity sector

Balancing burgeoning energy demands in the electricity sector while curbing carbon emissions poses a formidable challenge for emerging economies like Bangladesh, which is heavily reliant on fossil fuels. Despite the country's power system master plan (PSMP) until 2041 and submitted intended nationally determined contributions (INDC) to tackle mounting energy needs and associated emissions, the PSMP lacks specific emission reduction strategies. Thus, this study employs carbon emission pinch analysis to facilitate Bangladesh's long-term energy planning, highlighting emission reduction hurdles. This research aims to set emission limits, delineate fossil fuel and carbon-neutral source (i.e., zero emission during operation) compositions, ascertain carbon-neutral source ranges for targeted emissions, and propose viable carbon-neutral sources to meet escalating energy demands. Three scenarios are extensively explored: fulfilling INDC mandates, a 10% increase in renewable energy, and maintaining 2035 emission levels in 2040. The analysis unveils emission limits of 55 758.83 and 84 778.61 × 109 grams of CO2 equivalent for 2025 and 2030, respectively. Projections indicate a foreseen 10% surge in renewable energy by 2035, elevating its share to 18.16%. Carbon-neutral energy sources, encompassing solar, wind, hydroelectricity, biomass, and nuclear, are estimated to cover 56.06% of energy demand by 2040, driving a 33.30% emissions reduction.

How fiscal decentralization and trade diversification influence sustainable development: Moderating role of resources dependency

After ratifying the Paris Climate Agreement (PCA), most advanced economies are contributing incessantly to the international climate change framework. However, their “Intended Nationally Determined Contributions (INDC) pledges are still far from achieved due to their high consumption of natural resources, which spurs economic activities and environmental impairments. Therefore, to coup this predicament, this study evaluates the influence of natural resource rent (NTR), fiscal decentralization (FSD), and trade diversification (TDF) on the sustainable development of G-7 countries from 1995 to 2020. The ecological footprint is used as the proxy to accurately represents environmental sustainability. The direction and magnitude of the asymmetric association of the nexus between FSD, NTR, TDF, and EFP have been evaluated with the quantile-based econometrics approach of “Method of the Moments Quantile Regression” (MMQR). The estimates of MMQR suggested that fiscal decentralization and trade diversification have negative and significant coefficients at all quantiles (Q0.25- Q0.90), which implies that these variables are the plausible solution to reducing ecological footprint by sharing the fiscal power with the local or subnational governments and excluding the specialized products from the trade basket. In contrast, NTR and GDP are positively and significantly associated across all quantiles (Q0.25- Q0.90), indicating the adverse impact of these variables due to the escalation of resource consumption and GHG emissions. Additionally, for the robustness of the MMQR estimates, the “Augmented Mean Group” (AMG) and “Common Correlated Effect Mean Group” (CCEMG) confirm a similar direction of association between variables. The results provide policy recommendations to enhance environmental sustainability through FSD and TDF.

Willingness to pay premium prices for green buildings: evidence from an emerging economy.

The building sector is one of the major contributors to greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, which may impede the achievement of Malaysia's intended nationally determined contribution (INDC) by 2030. Therefore, this paper is aimed at identifying the underlying factors that affect working adults' willingness to pay (WTP) premium prices for green buildings. Data were collected from a total of 1198 respondents and analyzed using structural equitation modeling partial least square (SEM-PLS) to measure the willingness to pay for green buildings among working adults in Malaysia. The findings reveal that environmental literacy affects environmental belief as well as awareness of consequences among working adults in Malaysia. The findings also reveal that incentives for green building buyers have a significant impact on perceived behavioral control, while awareness of consequences has a significant influence on ascription of responsibility. However, the results reveal that awareness of consequences does not influence buyers' willingness to pay for green buildings. Moreover, the ascription of responsibility and perceived behavioral control have a significant effect on willingness to pay for green buildings. The findings of this study will help the concerned authorities to take appropriate steps to promote willingness to pay for green buildings, which will contribute significantly to the realization of INDC by 2030 as part of the Paris Agreement.

Kyoto Protocol and Paris Agreement: Transition from Bindings to Pledges – A Review

The present thematic review assessed 47 articles on the world’s global climate management policy. It reviews the Kyoto Protocol and Paris Agreement aiming to mitigate climate change with the mechanisms of bindings and pledges, respectively. The research on Kyoto Protocol suggests that most Annex I parties have met their targets through its embedded mechanisms. However, global emissions continued to increase even in the protocol period owing to many defects in its inherent mechanism. Further, the review of the Paris Agreement reveals that most of its signatories are striving hard to achieve the targets. Despite that, the global emissions trends have been very alarming and predicted emissions could be far above the Paris Agreement’s limit. The review reveals that the Kyoto Protocol successfully paved the way for a new climate management order. At the same time, the success of the Paris Agreement relies mainly on communication and compliance of respective Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) by signatories, alignments of NDCs and Intended Nationally Determined Contributions (INDCs), and transparency in their emission mitigation targets. The study opined that the developed nations should help developing nations meet their pledges, transfer first-hand technology and provide adequate innovative technological solutions with financial provisions for making a carbon-neutral sustainable planet.

Young People Are Changing Their Socio-Ecological Reality to Face Climate Change: Contrasting Transformative Youth Commitment with Division and Inertia of Governments

This paper contributes to a critical re-reading of the notion of climate services. It does so by problematizing the discontinuity between young people’s commitment to climate change, and the lack of a common vision regarding climate policy among governments. In this essay, youth commitment is characterized in terms of participation in the Global Youth Climate Pact (GYCP, 2015–2022). Here, young people share projects from their own high schools and communities and participate in a citizen consultation. Most projects have achieved a good success score, increasing over the years, especially for those carried out in emerging and developing countries. Some of them were presented at the COPs. In contrast, a textual analysis of intended nationally determined contributions (INDC) illustrates divergent understandings of the Paris Agreement and exemplifies the poor results of governmental climate diplomacy. This study establishes the need to closely monitor early warning signs of climate change in conjunction with high schools and school communities. The initiatives of young people are building a civic and planetary awareness for climate change in contrast with governmental division and inertia. In this sense, climate services, directed to young people, could contribute to design a sustainable future. We approach the practices, attitudes, and commitments of young people from the angle of cooperation rather than a moral vision of responsibility. Particularly, we propose a dialogical link between the treatment of climate issues and its effects on the constitution of networks, notably as they relate to practices of action, that is, the way in which distinct groups of young people develop relationships with their environments, organize themselves, and act and transform reality.

Foreign multinationals affiliates and countries' carbon upstreamness. How could these firms support the fulfilment of emissions reduction targets?

Climate emergency requires urgent actions to reduce carbon emissions. In this paper we calculate the countries’ carbon upstreamness and evaluate its linkage to the presence of foreign MNE affiliates, by using a multiregional input–output model with firm heterogeneity. We find a mismatch between carbon upstreamness, emissions reduction targets and income per capita between countries. OECD countries, which are located in the final stages of carbon production, have lower carbon intensity than the world average and have committed strongly to reducing their total emissions. On the contrary, non-OECD countries, which are located mainly in the initial stages of carbon production, maintain higher carbon intensity than the world average and they are less ambitiously committed, as they have lower per capita income. In that context, multinational enterprises (MNEs) could play a key role in supporting the fulfilment of emission reduction targets in host countries, so we propose a simulation to evaluate this role. Specifically, if the MNE affiliates adopt the Intended Nationally Determined Contributions (INDC) set by the controlling country regardless of where they are located, the emissions of MNEs would be reduced by 15.6% (395,864 KtCO2), 4% more than they would be reduced under current emission reduction targets in 2016. However, if MNEs apply the more ambitious INDC, regardless of origin or destination, the emissions would be reduced by 18% (455,910 KtCO2), 7% more than scenario 1 and 1.7% of global emissions in 2016.

Dynamic stock model based assessment of carpooling in passenger transportation carbon emissions: Will avoided trips and material credits help?

India's domestic climate policies in Intended Nationally Determined Contributions (INDC) supporting the Paris Climate Agreement and regional plans miss focus on the indirect impact of materials in the material-intensive transportation sector and sharing transportation such as carpooling. This is one of the first studies to assess the contribution of avoided trips, detours, and materials from carpooling in achieving different decarbonization targets from 2018 to 2050 by developing a novel Dynamic Stock Model (DSM). The model analyzes the dynamics of fleet technological variations and material stock with related uncertainty in the Mumbai Metropolitan Region. The results show that carpooling can reduce Carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions from trips by 0.27–1.34 Mt. However, detouring masks the benefits of increasing car occupancy during trips and increases CO2 emissions by 0.23–1.12 Mt. Increase in carpooling from conservative to extensive level increases savings from avoided materials accounting for a decrease of 4.99–24.93 Mt. of CO2 emissions, which is approximately 19 times of savings from avoided trips. The combined reduction in CO2 emissions of 4.76–23.81 Mt. from avoided trips and materials will not achieve the regional climate targets of 45.60 Mt., 26.6 Mt., and 30.40 Mt. for 2 °C, 1.5 °C, and INDC, respectively, by 44–252 %. Thus, the primary focus of policy should be on reducing material emissions rather than trip emissions by increasing recycling efficiency and reducing aluminum usage in lightweight vehicles until 2050. Future studies should exhaustively analyze other low-carbon interventions in the transportation sector using the developed DSM.

Credibility dilemmas under the Paris agreement: explaining fossil fuel subsidy reform references in INDCs

Fossil fuel subsidies are a market distortion commonly identified as an obstacle to decarbonization. Yet due to trenchant political economic risks, reform attempts can be fraught for governments. Despite these concerns, an institutionally and economically diverse group of states included references to fossil fuel subsidy reform (FFSR) in their Intended Nationally Determined Contributions (INDCs) under the Paris Agreement. What conditions might explain why some states reference politically risky reforms within treaty commitments, while most others would not? We argue that the Article 4 process under the Paris Agreement creates a “credibility dilemma” for states–articulating ambitious emissions reduction targets while also defining national climate plans engenders a need to seek out appropriate policy ideas that can justify overarching goals to international audiences. Insomuch as particular norms are institutionalized and made salient in international politics, a window of opportunity is opened: issue advocates can “activate” norms by demonstrating how related policies can make commitments credible. Using mixed methods, we find support for this argument. We identify contextual factors advancing FFSR in the lead-up to the Paris Agreement, including norm institutionalization in regimes and international organization programs as well as salience-boosting climate diplomacy. Further, we find correspondences between countries targeted by transnational policy advocates and FFSR references in INDCs, building on the momentum in international politics more generally. Though drafting INDCs and NDCs is a government-owned process, the results suggest that understanding their content requires examining international norms alongside domestic circumstances.

Potential heat-risk avoidance from nationally determined emission reductions targets in the future

The increasing heat stress from the combined effect of changes such as temperature and humidity in the context of global change receives growing concerns. However, there is limited information for future changes in heat stress, as well as its potential socioeconomic impact, under the intended nationally determined mitigation scenarios. This study established an efficient evaluation method to quantify the benefits from the potential heat stress reduction from a continued intended nationally determined contributions (INDC) mitigation effort. The future heat stress over global land, quantified by the wet bulb globe temperature, was investigated based on the temperature sensitivity approach and multi-model simulations from the latest generation global climate models. The INDC continuous-effort scenario and the delayed-effort scenario, as well as the target-control scenarios of 2 °C warming, were compared. We found that with the delayed mitigation efforts, the increase in frequency, duration, and cumulative intensity of extreme heat stress relative to the INDC continuous-effort scenario in the late 21st century could reach to 113%, 193%, and 212%, respectively. If more ambitious efforts above current INDC pledges were implemented to achieve the 2 °C global temperature goal, the corresponding avoided impact of heat stress frequency, duration, and cumulative intensity in the late 21st century was estimated to be 32%, 37%, and 40%, respectively. Future changes in heat stress in low latitudes, where most developing countries are located, are most sensitive to emission reduction. Our results highlighted the potential avoided heat stress-related impact of global warming from efforts towards climate change mitigation.

Investigating the role of capital formation to achieve carbon neutrality in India.

India's sustainable development goals consist of higher economic growth through large investments on the one hand and ambitious carbon emission reduction plans through increased renewables on the other. It needs to be seen if the two policies related to capital formation and energy transitioning to renewables complement each other or if they have been divergent in the case of India. This paper studies the dynamic association between carbon dioxide emissions, economic growth, renewable energy (RE) consumption, and gross capital formation and tests for the existence of Environmental Kuznets Curve (EKC) hypothesis for India over the time period 1970-2018. It also tries to see if there is any possible conflict between the economic and energy goals of the country by augmenting the interaction term between renewable energy consumption and gross capital formation in the EKC framework. The empirical results not only confirm long-run relationship among the underlying variables but also indicate an "N"-shaped EKC in the long run for India which is a departure from the traditional inverted U-shaped EKC hypothesis. Renewable energy consumption is found to reduce emissions, whereas gross capital formation and the interaction term between renewable energy consumption and gross capital formation are found to raise emissions in the long run. The study concludes that India needs to align its economic policy of "Make in India" with its energy policy so that investments under the former facilitate extensive penetration, adaptation, and usage of renewable energy. A policy dichotomy between the two goals may defeat India's Intended Nationally Determined Contribution (INDC) objective of drastic reduction in carbon dioxide emissions through increased renewables by 2030.

THE QUALITIES OF HUMAN BEING

1. The sources of electricity production such as coal, oil, and natural gas have contributed to one-third of global greenhouse gas emissions. It is essential to raise the standard of living by providing cleaner and more reliable electricity . India has an increasing energy demand to fulfill the economic development plans that are being implemented. The provision of increasing quanta of energy is a vital pre-requisite for the economic growth of a country. The National Electricity Plan [NEP] framed by the Ministry of Power (MoP) has developed a 10-year detailed action plan with the objective to provide electricity across the country, and has prepared a further plan to ensure that power is supplied to the citizens efficiently and at a reasonable cost. According to the World Resource Institute Report 2017 , India is responsible for nearly 6.65% of total global carbon emissions, ranked fourth next to China (26.83%), the USA (14.36%), and the EU (9.66%). Climate change might also change the ecological balance in the world. Intended Nationally Determined Contributions (INDCs) have been submitted to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and the Paris Agreement. The latter has hoped to achieve the goal of limiting the rise in global temperature to well below 2 °C . According to a World Energy Council prediction, global electricity demand will peak in 2030. India is one of the largest coal consumers in the world and imports costly fossil fuel . Close to 74% of the energy demand is supplied by coal and oil.

Allocation of carbon emission quotas based on global equality perspective.

In a context of global climate change and issues relating to national carbon neutrality, carbon emissions (CE), which are linked with sustainable national development, have become the focus of worldwide competition. We performed geographic information system (GIS) spatial analysis using historical CE data for major countries and world regions for the period 1970-2018 to identify their cumulative and per capita CE. The analysis revealed the characteristics of large cumulative CE in countries that underwent early industrialization, notably the USA, Russia, and Germany and of low per capita emissions in developing countries, notably China and India. We identified 10 mainstream international emission reduction scenarios and compared and analyzed the advantages and disadvantages of different models for measuring CE allowances. We further summarized the characteristics of IPCC scenarios, shared socioeconomic pathway scenarios, and temperature-controlled threshold scenarios along with the CE allowances of China and other major countries under different scenarios. The intended nationally determined contributions (INDCs) commitment mechanism may have an impact on promoting the construction of a new global climate governance order. Considering multiple scenarios and the uncertainty of carbon emissions, choosing a certain carbon budget plan is an important future research direction. Last, we reviewed the current methods of allocating CE rights globally and among major countries and the development trend of CE to provide scientific evidence for the formulation and implementation of future international climate change agreements. In conclusion, we offer solutions for enhancing participation in the global governance of climate change.

Renewable Energy in India: Assessment of public understanding, social acceptance and attitude

This research paper investigates the level of public understanding, attitude and social acceptance towards renewable energy (RE) in India. A concise analysis of the present status and future potential of renewable energy sources (RESs) is discussed. Furthermore, the role of renewables in achieving India’s sustainable development goals (SDGs) and Intended Nationally Determined Contributions (INDCs) are also discussed. Various social aspects of the RESs are examined. In this regard, a question set is prepared and sent to the participants all across the country. A total of 1026 respondents from diverse backgrounds participated in this study. The results clearly reveal a massive understanding level of the participants regarding the RESs and their awareness about various problematic aspects related with fossil energy sources (FESs). The responses also demonstrate that mostly participants are in favor of the RESs projects in their locality and possess very positive attitude towards the RESs. Furthermore, the responses establish that majority of the participants are in favor of increasing the use of the RESs and energy self-sufficiency. Additionally, they want government should increase their interventions in addressing climatic problems.

Life Cycle Sustainability Evaluation of Potential Bioenergy Development for Landfills in Colombia

Abstract The Colombian energy matrix faces significant changes toward meeting its energy needs while fulfilling its pledges in the Intended National Determined Contributions linked to the Paris Agreement. The country has developed a plan for energy transition with a 2050 horizon, a strategy reflected and supported by new legislative packages. Within its design, biomass and biomass waste play a vital role in bioenergy production; however, the benefits of deploying new bioenergy production facilities have not been fully accounted for, including only an economic and climate change perspective. In this work, a Life Cycle Sustainability Assessment of a potential bioenergy plant for industrial symbiosis with the largest landfill in the country is undertaken, avoiding environmental burden shifting between environmental damage categories and exposing the social potential of such projects. The results show how these types of projects are economically feasible and have the potential to boost the sustainable development of local communities, which under the Colombian context, have been structurally relegated from conventional economic growth for decades.

Global carbon emission spatial pattern in 2030 under INDCs: using a gridding approach based on population and urbanization

PurposeThe intended nationally determined contributions (INDCs) is a major outcome of the Paris Agreement on international cooperation to reduce emissions, and is likely to be the future scenario for carbon emissions. This paper aims to obtain the fine spatial pattern of carbon emissions in 2030, identify hot spots and analyze changes of carbon emissions with a spatial grid method.Design/methodology/approachBased on the integrated quantified INDCs of each economy in 2030, the authors predict the population density pattern in 2030 by using the statistics of current population density, natural growth rates and differences in population growth resulting from urbanization within countries. Then the authors regard population density as a comprehensive socioeconomic indicator for the top-bottom allocation of the INDC data to a 0.1° × 0.1° grid. Then, the grid spatial pattern of carbon emissions in 2030 is compared with that in 2016.FindingsUnder the unconditional and conditional scenarios, the global carbon emission grid values in 2030 will be within [0, 59,200.911] ktCO2 and [0, 51,800.942] ktCO2, respectively; eastern China, northern India, Western Europe and North America will continue to be the major emitters; grid carbon emissions will increase in most parts of the world compared to 2016, especially in densely populated areas.Originality/valueWhile many studies have explored the overall global carbon emissions or warming under the INDC scenario, attention to spatial details is also required to help us make better emissions attributions and policy decisions from the perspective of the grid unit rather than the administrative unit.

Colombia’s GHG Emissions Reduction Scenario: Complete Representation of the Energy and Non-Energy Sectors in LEAP

The signatory countries of the Paris Agreement must submit their updated Intended National Determined Contributions (INDCs) to the UNFCCC secretariat every five years. In Colombia, this activity was historically carried out with a wide set of diverse non-interconnected sector-specific models. Given the complexity of GHG emissions reporting and the evaluation of mitigation actions on a national scale, the need for a centralized platform was evident. Such approach would allow the integration and analysis of potential interactions among sectors, as well as to guarantee the homogeneity of assumptions and input parameters. In this paper, we describe the construction of an integrated bottom-up LEAP model tailored to the Colombian case, which covers all IPCC sectors. An integrated model facilitates capturing synergies and intersectoral interactions within the national GHG emissions system. Hence, policies addressing one sector and influencing others are identified and correctly assessed. Thus, 44 mitigation policies and mitigation actions were included in the model, in this way, identifying the sectors directly and being indirectly affected by them. The mitigation scenario developed in this paper reaches a reduction of 28% of GHG emissions compared with the reference scenario. The importance of including non-energy sectors is evident in the Colombian case, as GHG emission reductions are mainly driven by AFOLU. The first section describes the GHG emissions context in Colombia. Next, we describe the model structure, main input parameters, assumptions, considerations, and used LEAP functionalities. Results are presented from a GHG emissions accounting and energy demand perspective. The model allows for the correct estimate of the scope and potential of mitigation actions by considering indirect, unintended emissions reductions in all IPCC categories, as well as synergies with all mitigation actions included in the mitigation scenario. Moreover, the structure of the model is suitable for testing potential emission trajectories, facilitating its adoption by official entities and its application in climate policymaking.

Developing Glasgow Accord for COP-26 Using Game Theory

The UNFCCC hosted its 25th convention, known as COP25, which cannot be considered to be a success among the climate change conferences due to the failure of 175 nations to agree upon the final details of the Paris Agreement proposed in 2015. The aim was to bring together nations across the globe and reduce the global temperature rise to 2°C, which was expected to be around 4.5°C to 6°C. The justifications for the incompetence can be attributed to a variety of aspects, including their inability to implement the intended nationally determined contributions (INDC). Since there is no overall governing body that can ensure strong implementation of the accords, the system needs to be self-regulatory without any vulnerability to international politics. This study develops a series of factors that can be considered for decision making, benefiting and rewarding to assure complete self-governance of these nations on the said climate accord, without making it vulnerable to the political relations among nations. This study uses pre-defined elements of Game Theory in order to achieve the required equilibrium, as a base for understanding decision making and proposing a possible system to create an acceptable result for the member nations.