Deoxynivalenol Intake Research Articles

Occurrence and risk estimation of zearalenone and deoxynivalenol in oats, wheat flour, and cereals consumed in Chile during 2016–2022

Mycotoxin contamination in agricultural products is a significant food safety and public health concern globally. However, little is known about the occurrence and levels of deoxynivalenol (DON) and zearalenone (ZEN) in agri-food product in Chile. In this study, high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with fluorescence detection (HPLC-FLD) and ultraviolet detector (HPLC-UV) were employed to analyze the levels of ZEN and DON in oats, wheat flour, and cereals marketed in Chile and assess the exposure of Chilean individuals through the consumption. The presence of ZEN and DON during 2016–2022 was not considerable. Nonetheless, a higher prevalence of DON was observed in wheat flour (6.1 %) than in cereals (1.2 %) in different regions of Chile, without concentrations exceeding national regulations (750 ngg−1). The only positive sample for ZEN exceeded the international regulations (75 ngg−1) for cereals by 30-fold (2302 ngg−1). The Estimated daily intake (EDI) and Hazard quotient (HQ) for DON indicated no risk to human health. Meanwhile, the EDI for ZEN exceeded the Tolerable daily intake (TDI: 250 ngkg−1 day). Consequently, the HQ for ZEN was 7.7 (2–5 years) and 4.3 (6–13years), indicating a risk to children and adolescents, which are vulnerable age groups. We recommended increasing the frequency of mycotoxin monitoring for highly consumed agri-food products, considering that Chile is highly susceptible to the effects of climate change that promote the natural proliferation of mycotoxins.

Are Infants and Children at Risk of Adverse Health Effects from Dietary Deoxynivalenol Exposure? An Integrative Review.

Deoxynivalenol (DON) is a foodborne mycotoxin produced by Fusarium molds that commonly infect cereal grains. It is a potent protein synthesis inhibitor that can significantly impact humans' gastrointestinal, immune, and nervous systems and can alter the microbiome landscape. Low-dose, chronic exposure to DON has been found to stimulate the immune system, inhibit protein synthesis, and cause appetite suppression, potentially leading to growth failure in children. At higher doses, DON has been shown to cause immune suppression, nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, headache, diarrhea, gastroenteritis, the malabsorption of nutrients, intestinal hemorrhaging, dizziness, and fever. A provisional maximum tolerable daily intake (PMTDI) limit of 1 µg/kg/body weight has been established to protect humans, underscoring the potential health risks associated with DON intake. While the adverse effects of dietary DON exposure have been established, healthcare communities have not adequately investigated or addressed this threat to child health, possibly due to the assumption that current regulatory exposure limits protect the public appropriately. This integrative review investigated whether current dietary DON exposure rates in infants and children regularly exceed PMTDI limits, placing them at risk of negative health effects. On a global scale, the routine contamination of cereal grains, bakery products, pasta, and human milk with DON could lead to intake levels above PMTDI limits. Furthermore, evidence suggests that other food commodities, such as soy, coffee, tea, dried spices, nuts, certain seed oils, animal milk, and various water reservoirs, can be intermittently contaminated, further amplifying the scope of the issue. Better mitigation strategies and global measures are needed to safeguard vulnerable youth from this harmful toxicant.

Assessment of mycotoxin contamination in cereal-based baby foods destined for infant consumption in Brazil

The presence of mycotoxins in cereal-based baby foods is undesirable, especially because infants are considered more vulnerable to toxin exposure than adults. In this context, this study evaluated the occurrence of multiple mycotoxins in 60 samples of cereal-based baby foods from Brazil and assessed the risk of the consumption of these products by children. Aflatoxins B1 and B2 (AFB1, AFB2), deoxynivalenol (DON), 3-acetyl deoxynivalenol (3-ADON), 15-acetyl deoxynivalenol (15-ADON) and zearalenone (ZEN) were evaluated by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). The results revealed that 98.3% of the samples were contaminated by at least one mycotoxin, with 80% of them demonstrating co-contamination. DON was detected in 80% of the samples, followed by 15-ADON (71.7%), 3-ADON (65%), ZEN (56.7%) and AFB1 (5%), with none of the samples contaminated by AFB2. The maximum concentrations found were 75.6 μg/kg for DON, 18.9 μg/kg for ZEN, 9.6 μg/kg for 15-ADON, 3.5 μg/kg for AFB1 and 2.8 μg/kg for 3-ADON. The occurrence of AFB1 was low, however, some products exceeded the limits established by the current regulations. Although the estimated daily intake (EDI) of DON, 3-ADON, 15-ADON and ZEN were below the safety values currently established, the margin of exposure (MOE) values for AFB1 indicate a concern for public health.

Human Biomonitoring Guidance Values for Deoxynivalenol Derived under the European Human Biomonitoring Initiative (HBM4EU).

The mycotoxin deoxynivalenol (DON) was one of the priority substances in the European Joint Human Biomonitoring Initiative (HBM4EU) project. In this study, to better interpret the actual internal exposure of DON in the general population and safeguard public health, human biomonitoring guidance values of DON for the general population (HBM-GVGenPop) were derived. The HBM-GVGenPop of DON was based on either the total DON (DON and its glucuronides) or DON's main metabolite (DON-15-GlcA) levels in 24-h urine samples, resulting in a HBM-GVGenPop of 0.023 µg/mL for the total DON or a HBM-GVGenPop of 0.020 µg/mL for DON-15-GlcA. The use of 24-h urine samples is recommended based on the fact that DON and its metabolites have a short elimination half-life (T1/2), and 95% of the cumulative amount was excreted within 12 h after DON intake. The T1/2 for DON, DON-15-GlcA, and total DON were estimated to be 2.55 h, 2.95 h, and 2.95 h, respectively. Therefore, a 24-h urine sample reflects almost all of the DON exposure from the previous day, and this type of sample was considered for the derivation of a HBM-GVGenPop for DON.

Co-occurrence of deoxynivalenol and its acetylated derivatives in Chinese beer samples

There is a lack of data information on the contamination levels of deoxynivalenol (DON) and its acetylated derivatives in beer sold on the Chinese market. In this work, the DON and its acetylated derivatives content in 75 beer samples from the Chinese market was analyzed using liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS). 25 samples (33.33%) existed the contamination of DON and its acetylated derivatives. In positive beer samples, DON had the highest average concentration of 4.03 μg/L with a proportion of 92%, 3-acetyl-deoxynivalenol (3-ADON) was 1.48 μg/L with a proportion of 20%, and 15-acetyl-deoxynivalenol (15-ADON) was 3.77 μg/L with a proportion of 20%. Interestingly, there was a correlation between the contamination of DON and its acetylated derivatives and original gravity in beer on Chinese market. Through calculation, the lowest and highest boundaries of the possible daily intake (PDI) for DON and its acetylated derivatives caused by beer samples were 2.65 and 6.82 ng/kg bw/day respectively, indicating that the DON and its acetylated derivatives content found in Chinese beer can be considered as a safe low level. This study provides data support for the contamination of DON and its acetylated derivatives in Chinese beer.

Longitudinal follow-up of zearalenone and deoxynivalenol mycotoxins in breast milk in the first five months of life

ObjectivesThere is a possibility for exposed lactating mammalians to transfer some contaminants to their milk. This study aimed to determine the levels and changes of Zearalenone (ZEN), Deoxynivalenol (DON) mycotoxins for the first five months in human milk.MethodsVoluntary lactating mothers having infants with gestational length ≥ 37 weeks were enrolled between August 2017 and June 2018 in Şanlıurfa. Mothers and infants with chronic health problems were not included in the study. Human milk samples were taken at three different times; on enrollment (Day 6–10, visit 1), between 4 and 6 weeks postpartum (visit 2), and between 14 and 19 weeks postpartum (visit 3). Mycotoxin levels in human milk were measured utilizing Helica brand commercial kit.ResultsNineteen voluntary mothers and their breastfed infants with three human milk samples completed the study. The mean ages of mothers and infant (± SD) were 27.4 (± 5.4) years and 7.6 (± 0.9) days on enrollment. Median levels of ZEN and DON in human milk samples were 0.39 and 16.7 ng/mL, respectively. None of the cases had a ZEN daily intake higher than 250 ng/kg bw per day. However, three fourth of the cases had DON intake higher than > 1000 ng/kg bw per day. When adjusted for infant weight for age and sex, both ZEN levels and daily intake were decreased progressively from visit 1 to visit 3 (p < 0.001). DON levels and daily intake at visit 2 were found to be significantly lower in samples of visit 3 than that taken in visit 2 (p = 0.004 and p < 0.001, respectively).ConclusionsBreast milk monitoring study revealed that ZEN and DON mycotoxins were present in the mother-infant environment. Contamination levels changed during the lactation period.

Urinary and Serum Concentration of Deoxynivalenol (DON) and DON Metabolites as an Indicator of DON Contamination in Swine Diets.

Pig health is impaired and growth performance is reduced when exposed to deoxynivalenol (DON). The measurement of DON in individual feedstuffs and complete swine diets is variable because of the inconsistent distribution of mycotoxins in feed and the difficulties in obtaining representative samples. We investigated whether measuring DON and its metabolites in biological samples could be used as a predictor of DON ingestion by pigs. Blood samples were collected between 3 and 4 h after the morning meal and urine samples were quantitatively collected over a 24 h period on d 40 and 82 of the study to evaluate serum and urinary content of DON and DON metabolites (iso-deoxynivalenol, DON-3-glucuronide, DON-15-glcurunide, deepoxy-deoxynivalenol, iso-deepoxy-deoxynivalenol, deepoxy-deoxynivalenol-3-glucuronide, and deepoxy-deoxynivalenol-15-glucuronide). The intake of DON was positively correlated with urinary DON output. Similarly, there was an increase in serum DON level with increasing DON intake. Overall, it was found that DON intake correlated with DON concentration in urine and blood serum when samples were collected under controlled conditions. Analyzing DON levels in urine and blood serum could be used to predict a pig's DON intake.

A prospective study of total urinary deoxynivalenol in adolescents in Shanghai, China

There is growing interest in deoxynivalenol (DON) exposure during puberty because experimental evidence shows that DON-exposed to adolescents are more sensitive to DON and have limited detoxification ability. Nevertheless, there have been few surveys of DON exposure for adolescents in China. Furthermore, little is known about the effects of collection times on risk exposure. In the study, we estimated the risk of DON exposure for adolescents in Shanghai and explore the effects of collection time, areas, sex and BMI on intake estimates. A total of 315 adolescents aged 14–16 years, including 161 boys and 154 girls, were recruited. Urine samples were collected for three consecutive days and digested with β-glucuronidase and then purified using a DON-immunoaffinity column (IAC). Total deoxynivalenol levels were measured using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC–MS/MS) in combination with a stable isotope dilution assay (SIDA). DON was detected in 945 morning urine samples taken from 315 individuals for three consecutive days. The mean estimated dietary intake of DON did not exceed the tolerable daily intake (TDI) of l μg/kg·bw/day, showing that exposure of adolescents in Shanghai is not of concern. However, 10–20% of probable daily intake (PDI) values exceed the TDI, indicating potential adverse effects. In addition, the DON concentration at the population level did not differ for urine samples collected at different times except for those of overweight adolescents. Therefore, assessment of exposure to DON by monitoring the morning urine of a healthy adolescent, except for overweight people, provides an appropriate estimate of exposure and related risk at the population level, but intake estimates for individuals are uncertain; these could be used to assess exposure of adolescents to DON rapidly and effectively for epidemiological investigations.

Exposure assessment of urinary deoxynivalenol in pregnant women in Wuhan, China

Deoxynivalenol (DON) is a ubiquitous trichothecene mycotoxin in food. DON and its modified forms can cross the placental barrier and influence the foetus’ health. Limited information is available on exposure of dietary DON intake of pregnant women in China recently. We estimated the exposure of dietary DON intake of pregnant women in a large sample size (n = 2534) from China. The total DON (tDON) and free DON (fDON) biomarkers in urine were detected by liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry. The mean concentration of tDON was 34.8 ng/mg creatinine, and the fDON was 15.9 ng/mg creatinine. The estimated exposure of dietary DON intake was 0.96–1.91 μg/kg bw/day, and the difference in exposure of DON between the first and second trimesters was statistically insignificant. Approximately 26%–60% of individuals exceeded the provisional maximum tolerable daily intake (PMTDI). The age, pre-pregnancy BMI, and the sampling seasons may be the risk factor for the occurrence of exceeding PMTDI. This survey is the first exposure biomarker for DON in a large sample size from pregnant women in China. We found that the dietary DON exposure in pregnant women was relatively high and particular concern should be paid to the DON exposure during pregnancy.

Application of Wastewater-Based Epidemiology for Tracking Human Exposure to Deoxynivalenol and Enniatins.

Wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) is a promising biomonitoring approach with the potential to provide direct information on human intake and exposure to food contaminants and environmental chemicals. The aim of this study was to apply WBE while employing the normalization method for exploring human exposure to selected mycotoxins according to population biomarker 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid (5-HIAA). This type of normalization technique has been previously used to detect various other compounds. However, to the best of our knowledge, this is the first study tracking human exposure to mycotoxins. A sensitive analytical methodology was developed to achieve reliable quantification of deoxynivalenol, enniatins, and beauvericin in wastewater (WW) samples. The applicability of the method was evaluated by testing 29 WW samples collected at WW treatment plants in Latvia. With frequency of detection greater than 86%, enniatins B, B1, A, and A1 were revealed in WW samples. The estimated total daily intake for enniatins was in the range of 1.8–27.6 µg/day per person. Free deoxynivalenol (DON) was determined in all analysed WW samples. Based on the average 5-HIAA excretion level and the determined 5-HIAA content in the samples, the intake of DON by the human population of Riga was estimated at 325 ng/kg b.w. day.

Urinary deoxynivalenol as a biomarker of exposure in different age, life stage and dietary practice population groups.

The Fusarium mycotoxin deoxynivalenol (DON) and its modified forms are present in most samples of grain and grain-based products. Due to the widespread presence of DON in these highly consumed food commodities, nearly all individuals are exposed to DON. Previous estimates of the dietary DON intake in Norway indicated that children's dietary intake is close to or exceed the TDI of 1µg/kg bw/day for the sum of DON and three modified forms. One aim of the current study was to determine whether the concentrations of DON in morning urine differ between population groups like men, women, children, vegetarians, and pregnant women. An additional aim was to compare a set of models for estimating the dietary intake of DON based on urinary DON concentrations and also compare these models with DON-intakes estimated using food consumption data. DON and metabolites were detected in the morning urine from 256 out of 257 individuals and with concentrations in similar range as reported from other countries. Children have higher urinary DON-concentration than adults and elderly. The urinary DON-concentration in pregnant women and vegetarians did not differ from other adults. The estimated intake of DON was higher for children than for other age groups on a body weight basis. The correlations between different models for estimating DON-intake based on urinary concentration as well as based on individual food consumption were good (0.79-0.99), but with some outliers. We conclude that Norwegians are exposed to DON in the same range as reported from other countries and that children have a higher exposure than adults. Furthermore, we conclude that intake estimates based on urinary DON concentration is a useful tool for evaluation of the exposure at population level, but due to outliers, the estimates for individuals are uncertain. There are also uncertainties in intake estimates both from food consumption and from urinary DON concentration, and we could not conclude on which approach provides the most accurate exposure estimate.

Occurrence and Risk Assessment of Dietary Exposure to Deoxynivalenol in Wheat-Based Products Based Different Wheat-Producing Area for the Inhabitants in Shanghai, China.

Deoxynivalenol (DON) is one of the major mycotoxins that contaminate cereals. In this study, we determined the DON level in wheat-based products from Chinese five main production areas collected in Shanghai and calculated the daily intake of DON for inhabitants using the point evaluation and the probabilistic evaluation based on Monte Carlo simulation. The results showed the positive rates of DON in the products were higher than 80.0%, with the concentrations ranging from 41.8 to 1110 µg/kg. The estimated mean daily intakes of DON for 7- to 10-year-old children and adults groups were below 1 µg/kg bw/day, the provisional maximum tolerable daily intake (PMTDI) set by the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA), suggesting no health risks for the consumers. However, the 99th percentiles of dietary DON exposures for children and adults exceeded the PMTDI, indicating adverse health effects might occur if the two groups intake highly contaminated wheat-based products. The potential health risks for the two groups exposed to DON in the wheat-based products from the Middle and Lower Yangtze Valley (MLYV) were higher than those from the other areas in China.

A worldwide systematic review, meta-analysis, and health risk assessment study of mycotoxins in beers.

Mycotoxins, including aflatoxins (AFs), ochratoxin A (OTA), deoxynivalenol (DON), fumonisins (FBs), and zearalenone (ZEN), have been reported as beer contaminants. This systematic review and meta-analysis provide the prevalence and concentration of mycotoxins in beers and their worldwide distribution. Mycotoxin's exposure and cancer risk through beer consumption were determined. The overall pooled prevalence of mycotoxins in beers was 31% (95% confidence interval [CI]=28%-35%; I2 =90%, p=.00). The most prevalent mycotoxins in beers were DON and its derivatives (53%), OTA (52%), FBs (47%), followed by AFs (12%). Iran (99%), Hungary (95%), Denmark (92%), Armenia (83%), and Cyprus (83%) had the highest mycotoxin prevalence in beers. The global mycotoxins average concentration in beers was 12.52μg/L (95% CI=10.70-14.75μg/L; I2 =100%, p=.00). DON and its derivatives showed the highest concentration (26.91μg/L), followed by FBs (23.19μg/L), ZEN and its derivatives (20.25μg/L), and AFs (15.65μg/L). African region had the highest mycotoxins concentration (73.95μg/L) mostly due to the high levels reported in beers from Cameroon (293.02μg/L), Malawi (132.34μg/L), and Eastern Cape province (126.12μg/L). The meta-regression indicated stability (p ≥ .05) of the global pooled concentration of mycotoxins in beers over the years, whereas FBs concentration increased. The intake of DON and its derivatives, FBs, ZEN and its derivatives, and OTA through beers is of concern in African countries. OTA is also of concern in Brazil and Belgium. Results show high mycotoxins concentration in beers worldwide and highlight the health risks through contaminated beer consumption.

Modelling the Renal Excretion of the Mycotoxin Deoxynivalenol in Humans in an Everyday Situation.

The dietary exposure to the mycotoxin deoxynivalenol (DON) can be assessed by human biomonitoring (HBM). Here, we assessed the relation between dietary DON intake and the excretion of its major metabolite DON-15-glucuronide (DON15GlcA) through time, in an everyday situation. For 49 volunteers from the EuroMix biomonitoring study, the intake of DON from each meal was calculated and the excretion of DON and its metabolites was analyzed for each urine void collected separately throughout a 24-h period. The relation between DON and DON15GlcA was analyzed with a statistical model to assess the residence time and the excreted fraction of ingested DON as DON15GlcA (fabs_excr). Fabs_excr was treated as a random effect variable to address its heterogeneity in the population. The estimated time in which 97.5% of the ingested DON was excreted as DON15GlcA was 12.1 h, the elimination half-life was 4.0 h. Based on the estimated fabs_excr, the mean reversed dosimetry factor (RDF) of DON15GlcA was 2.28. This RDF can be used to calculate the amount of total DON intake in an everyday situation, based on the excreted amount of DON15GlcA. We show that urine samples collected over 24 h are the optimal design to study DON exposure by HBM.

DEOXINIVALENOL AS A RISK FACTOR OF FOOD GRAIN CONTAMINATION: MONITORING RESULTS OF 1989–2018 YEARS HARVESTS IN RUSSIAN FEDERATION

The paper dwells on the results obtained via long-term monitoring over food grain (wheat, barley, corn, oats, and rye) contamination with mycotoxin deoxynivalenol (DON). From 1989 to 2018 6,800 grain samples from Central, Southern, Volga, Ural, Siberian, North-Caucasian, Far Eastern, and North-western Federal Districts (FD) of the RF were analyzed. Depending on a year harvest, DON occurrence varied from 0 to 42 % and maximum toxin content reached 6.65 mg/kg. Over the whole examined period 10 % samples turned out to be contaminated and one forth of them contained the toxin in quanti- ties exceeding maximum permissible levels (MPL). DON occurrence amounted to 24–42 % in years of mass epiphytoties (1989, 1992 and 1993) as well as in crops gathered in 2014 and 2017; DON was detected in quantities exceeding MPL in 9–27 % of examined samples in those years. 78 % contaminated samples came from Southern and North-Caucasian FD and another 10 % were from Far Eastern FD. A significant correlation between DON occurrence and a number of rainy and sunny days in May was established on the example of wheat samples from Krasnodar region. Analysis of contamination dy- namics has revealed that over the last years there has been an ascending trend in frequency of DON detection in wheat that came not only from regions where Fusarium head blight was widely spread but also from regions in North-western, Siberian and Volga FD. Health risks related to DON intake with wheat grains processing products were assessed; the assessment revealed that DON intake higher than tolerable daily intake (TDI) for the residents of Southern and North-Caucasian FD in 1992, 1993, 2014 and 2017. Average occurrence of DON was 4.2; 11.9; 3.0 and 0.6 % for barley, corn, rye, and oats samples and its maximum contents amounted to 8.95; 0.95; 0.96 and 0.44 mg/kg accordingly. Just as it was the case with wheat, the most of contami- nated samples came from Southern, North-Caucasian and Far Eastern FD. Contamination tended to grow for all the exam- ined grains and it calls for relevant measures aimed at controlling food grains safety

ДЕЗОКСИНИВАЛЕНОЛ КАК ФАКТОР РИСКА ЗАГРЯЗНЕНИЯ ПРОДОВОЛЬСТВЕННОГО ЗЕРНА: МОНИТОРИНГ УРОЖАЕВ 1989–2018 ГГ. В РОССИЙСКОЙ ФЕДЕРАЦИИ

The paper dwells on the results obtained via long-term monitoring over food grain (wheat, barley, corn, oats, and rye) contamination with mycotoxin deoxynivalenol (DON). From 1989 to 2018 6,800 grain samples from Central, Southern, Volga, Ural, Siberian, North-Caucasian, Far Eastern, and North-western Federal Districts (FD) of the RF were analyzed. Depending on a year harvest, DON occurrence varied from 0 to 42 % and maximum toxin content reached 6.65 mg/kg. Over the whole examined period 10 % samples turned out to be contaminated and one forth of them contained the toxin in quanti- ties exceeding maximum permissible levels (MPL). DON occurrence amounted to 24–42 % in years of mass epiphytoties (1989, 1992 and 1993) as well as in crops gathered in 2014 and 2017; DON was detected in quantities exceeding MPL in 9–27 % of examined samples in those years. 78 % contaminated samples came from Southern and North-Caucasian FD and another 10 % were from Far Eastern FD. A significant correlation between DON occurrence and a number of rainy and sunny days in May was established on the example of wheat samples from Krasnodar region. Analysis of contamination dy- namics has revealed that over the last years there has been an ascending trend in frequency of DON detection in wheat that came not only from regions where Fusarium head blight was widely spread but also from regions in North-western, Siberian and Volga FD. Health risks related to DON intake with wheat grains processing products were assessed; the assessment revealed that DON intake higher than tolerable daily intake (TDI) for the residents of Southern and North-Caucasian FD in 1992, 1993, 2014 and 2017. Average occurrence of DON was 4.2; 11.9; 3.0 and 0.6 % for barley, corn, rye, and oats samples and its maximum contents amounted to 8.95; 0.95; 0.96 and 0.44 mg/kg accordingly. Just as it was the case with wheat, the most of contami- nated samples came from Southern, North-Caucasian and Far Eastern FD. Contamination tended to grow for all the exam- ined grains and it calls for relevant measures aimed at controlling food grains safety

The administration of diets contaminated with low to intermediate doses of deoxynivalenol and supplemented with antioxidants and binding agents slightly affects the growth, antioxidant status, and vaccine response in weanling pigs.

This study aimed to evaluate the impact of grading levels of deoxynivalenol (DON) in the diet of weaned pigs, as well as the effects of a supplementation with antioxidants (AOX), hydrated sodium calcium aluminosilicates (HSCAS), and their combination on the growth, AOX status, and immune and vaccine responses against the porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) and porcine circovirus type 2 (PCV2). At weaning, 336 piglets were allocated to six dietary treatments according to a randomized complete block design. Treatments were as follows: basal diet (CTRL); basal diet containing DON at 1.2 mg/kg (DON1.2); basal diet containing DON at 2.4 mg/kg (DON2.4); DON2.4 diet + a mix of AOX which included vitamins A and E at 20,000 IU and 200 IU/kg feed respectively, selenized yeast at 0.3 mg/kg, and a grape seed extracts at 100 mg/kg feed (DON2.4 + AOX); DON2.4 diet + the mix of AOX and the modified HSCAS mentioned above (DON2.4 + AOX + HSCAS); DON2.4 + AOX + HSCAS. Pigs were vaccinated against PRRSV and PCV2 at 7 d; on 0, 14, and 35 d, growth performance was recorded, and blood samples were collected in order to evaluate the oxidative status, inflammatory blood markers, lymphocyte blastogenic response, and vaccine antibody response. Increasing intake of DON resulted in a quadratic effect at 35 d in the lymphocyte proliferative response to concanavalin A and PCV2 as well as in the anti-PRRSV antibody response, whereas the catalase activity decreased in DON2.4 pigs compared with the CTRL and DON1.2 groups (P ≤ 0.05). Compared with the DON2.4 diet, the AOX supplementation slightly reduced gain to feed ratio (P = 0.026) and increased the ferric reducing ability of plasma as well as α-tocopherol concentration (P < 0.05), whereas the association of AOX + HSCAS increased the anti-PRRSV IgG (P < 0.05). Furthermore, the HSCAS supplement reduced haptoglobin levels in serum at 14 d compared with the DON2.4 group; however, its concentration decreased in all the experimental treatments from 14 to 35 d and particularly in the DON2.4 + AOX pigs, whereas a different trend was evidenced in the DON2.4 + HSCAS group, where over the same period haptoglobin concentration increased (P < 0.05). Overall, our results show that the addition of AOX and HSCAS in the diet may alleviate the negative effects due to DON contamination on the AOX status and immune response of vaccinated weanling pigs.

PSV-4 Determination of Deoxynivalenol (DON) Content in Biological Samples as an Indicator of DON Intake in Grower-finisher Pigs

Abstract Due to difficulties in obtaining consistent and/or reliable measures of deoxynivalenol (DON) in complete swine diets, we investigated whether measuring DON in biological samples could be used as an indicator of DON ingestion in pigs. In this study, graded levels of DON (1, 3, or 5 ppm) were fed to grower-finisher pigs for a period of 77-d. On d 35 and 77 of the study, urine samples were quantitatively collected over a 24-h period and blood samples were collected between 3 – 4 h after the morning meal on each of those days for serum DON analysis. For direct quantification of DON in urine, high-performance liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry was performed. For serum samples, indirect quantification of DON was performed via enzymatic hydrolysis. We observed that DON content in urine increased linearly as intake of DON increased (Fig.1A; P &amp;lt; 0.05). Analysis of DON in serum follow a similar trend, where serum DON content was increased as DON intake increased (Fig.1B; P &amp;lt; 0.05). An average of 30% of DON ingested was recovered as DON in urine over a 24-h period. In summary, there was a linear relationship between DON intake and DON content in both urine and blood serum, therefore, analyzing DON concentration in serum and urine could be used as a tool to estimate for DON exposure in pigs under controlled conditions.

Deoxynivalenol Induces Inflammation in the Small Intestine of Weaned Rabbits by Activating Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase Signaling.

Deoxynivalenol (DON) can activate related signaling pathways and induce gastrointestinal disorders. Based on the results of previous studies, this study tried to explore the relationship between DON-induced intestinal inflammation of weaned rabbits and the ERK-p38 signaling pathway. Forty-five weaned rabbits were divided into three treatments: control, LD and HD group. All rabbits were treated with diet containing a same nutrient content, but animals in the LD and HD groups were additionally administered DON via drinking water at 0.5 and 1.5 mg/kg b.w./d, respectively. The protocol consisted of a total feeding period of 31 days, including a pre-feeding period of 7 days. Western blotting, qRT-PCR, and immunohistochemistry were applied for analysis the expression of protein and mRNA of extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK), p38, double-stranded RNA-activated protein kinase (PKR), and hematopoietic cell kinase (Hck) in the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum of rabbits, as well as the distribution of positive reactants. The results proved that DON intake could enhance the levels of inflammatory factors in serum and damage the intestinal structure barrier of rabbits. Meanwhile, DON addition can stimulate the protein and mRNA expression for ERK, p38, PKR, and Hck in the intestine of rabbits, especially in the duodenum, as well as expand the distribution of positive reactants, in a dose-dependent manner.

Effect of long-term feeding of graded levels of deoxynivalenol (DON) on growth performance, nutrient utilization, and organ health in finishing pigs and DON content in biological samples.

The prevalence of deoxynivalenol (DON) is a concern for swine producers, and although there has been extensive research into the effects of DON in pigs, focus has been in young pigs and/or in short-term studies. The objective of the study was to determine the effect of long-term exposure to DON-contaminated diets in finisher pigs. A total of 200 pigs (76.6 ± 3.9 kg initial weight) were group housed (five pigs per pen; n = 10 pens/treatment) in a 6-wk trial. Pigs were fed a wheat-barley-soybean meal-based control (CONT) diet with no DON or the basal diet in which clean wheat was replaced by DON-contaminated wheat and wheat screenings to provide DON content of 1, 3, or 5 ppm (DON1, DON3, and DON5, respectively). Individual BW and pen feed intake were recorded weekly to calculate average daily gain (ADG), average daily feed intake (ADFI), and gain to feed ratio (G:F). Blood was collected on days 0, 14, and 43 and analyzed for indicators of liver and kidney health. Nitrogen (N)-balance was conducted immediately following the growth performance period to determine the effect of DON on nutrient utilization. Blood and urine samples collected during N balance were analyzed for DON content. Feeding DON reduced (P < 0.05) ADFI and ADG from days 0 to 28 compared with CONT, after which there was no effect of diet on ADFI and ADG. The G:F was lower (P < 0.05) in DON5 fed pigs compared with all treatments during days 0 to 7; however, no treatment effects on G:F was observed from days 8 to 42. Nitrogen retention was lower (P < 0.05) in DON3 and DON5 compared with DON1-fed pigs. Nitrogen retention efficiency was higher (P < 0.05) in DON1 compared with DON3 and DON5 and protein deposition for DON1 pigs was higher (P < 0.05) than all treatments. There were no treatment effects on indicators of liver and kidney health. As dietary DON intake increased, concentration of DON in blood and urine increased. Overall, although there was an initial decrease in ADG and ADFI in pigs receiving diets containing >1 ppm DON, pig performance recovered after a period of time, whereas nutrient utilization continued to be affected after recovery of performance. Moreover, the lack of DON on G:F indicates that the negative effects of DON on growth performance are largely due to reduced feed intake. Overall, although pigs maybe capable of adapting to intake of DON-contaminated diets, their final body weight will be reduced when fed diets containing >1 ppm DON.