Individual Obligations Research Articles

대한민국헌법상 국민에 대한 국가의 의무

Rights have corresponding obligations. The state is also subject to obligations regarding basic rights guaranteed under the Constitution. These obligations do not necessarily need to be written in the Constitution. This is because rights logically presuppose the duties of the state. However, the Constitution of the Republic of Korea declares the state’s obligation to guarantee fundamental rights in Article 10, Sentence 2, which can be seen as reaffirming the logical result of the fact that fundamental rights should be guaranteed.
 On the contrary, obligations are not necessarily established on the premise of rights. The duty to the citizens granted to the state under the Constitution is not necessarily premised on basic rights. Aside from the state’s obligations related to guaranteeing basic rights, there are also many state obligation provisions in the Constitution of the Republic of Korea. Although these duties of the state are very important in the relationship with the people, there are many duties of the state that cannot be considered from the perspective of basic rights.
 This study pursues the goal of guaranteeing the basic rights of the people, but examines it from the perspective of duty rather than the perspective of rights. Meanwhile, the purpose is to reveal a comprehensive system that guarantees the status of the people, including the relationship between the state and the people, which cannot be seen from the perspective of rights. Specifically speaking, it is to find ways to guarantee the fulfillment of national obligations. In principle, non-performance of state duties can be evaluated as a violation of the Constitution, but the standard by which to judge its unconstitutionality is a very important issue in constitutional reviews.
 The basic rights system theory has been developed regarding the guarantee level of basic rights, according to which various methods of basic rights are classified. State obligations can be also classified according to the theory of state duty. First, the state’s duty can be divided into the duty to act and the duty to omit. Since the duty of omission is violated through active action, it is appropriate to conduct strict scrutiny especially when it is related to fundamental rights. In the case of obligation to act, omission and insufficient action are issues. In the former case, strict scrutiny is applied in the same sense as restriction, but in the latter case, various standards of review could be applied considering the legislative discretion and related concrete circumstances. But it may be applied the milder review, in principle, when the legislative discretion is permitted. This article specifically examines each individual obligation imposed on the state from this stand of view.

Issues of Proper Notification and Judicial Protection of an Administrative Act

Key words: administrative act, administration, awareness, law, judicial protection The administrative act, adopted by the administrative body, is one of the main links connecting the administrative bodies, i.e., the republican executive bodies of the Republic of Armenia endowed with power levers, other state bodies exercising control throughout the territory of the Republic, and individuals, since the administrative act is aimed at defining and changing the rights and obligations of individuals, to the elimination or recognition. The RA Law “On the Fundamentals of Management and Administrative Procedure” provides a general rule for informing the addressee about a written administrative act, according to which a written administrative act must be handed over to the participants within the three days after its signing. The procedure for notification of administrative acts, based on administrative offenses, is exhaustively defined by Article 283 of the RA Code of Administrative Offenses. This article discusses the issues of informing the addressee about the administrative act and the advisability of informing. The existing gaps are highlighted, the ways of solution to existing problems are proposed, and the existing judicial practice is also taken into account.

Estimation of smoothing of consumer expenditures of Kazakhstan citizens and their chances to increase the demand for credit resources

The decline in the level of well-being of the population has been observed in recent years in some countries of the near and far abroad, as well as the growth of debt obligations of individuals to second-tier banks. Various indicators are taken as the level of well-being of the population in foreign researches in order to verify these statements. The ability of individuals and households to smooth out consumer spending in response to temporary rather than permanent income shocks is one of the key determinants of well-being according to the permanent income hypothesis and life cycle theory. In this regard, the ability of Kazakhstan citizens to smooth out consumer spending in response to shocks in employment, wages, debt burden and changes in temporary income are studied, as well as the chances of an increase in applications of Kazakhstan citizens for credit resources to second-tier banks are assessed in the presented article. Data for 16 regions of Kazakhstan for 2003–2020 are used to calculate coefficient estimates for the variables of interest. The results obtained indicate the ability of Kazakhstan citizens to smooth out approximately 7 % of temporary income. Meanwhile, negative employment shocks contribute to a 0,22 % reduction in consumer spending, ceteris paribus. The level of education and the average age of Kazakhstan citizens have a positive effect on the growth of consumer spending. It should be noted that the average age in Kazakhstan is lower than in European countries. The economically active population of Kazakhstan are not inclined to increase the demand for credit resources in second-tier banks in response to negative wage shocks. The results of the research indicate the financial stability of second-tier banks in Kazakhstan. At the same time, the financial stability of banks are achieved by gradually reducing the volume of loans to individuals.

Analysis of the simplified trust regime RESICO

Individuals and corporations acquire tax obligations when they initiate an economic activity. The obligation of individuals and legal entities to contribute to public spending is established in Article 1 of the Federal Fiscal Code, where the applicable provisions are indicated; it is the main basis for the contributions classified as taxes, social security contributions, improvement contributions and duties, mentioned in Article 2 of the Federal Fiscal Code. The timely and proper payment of the respective taxes avoids being subject to certain tax credits, updates and surcharges. The SAT is continually looking for ways for taxpayers to comply with these obligations, adapting tax regimes to facilitate this process. The RESICO Simplified Trust Regime is an example of this, which establishes who can and cannot pay taxes, the requirements and procedures to comply with tax obligations. This analysis contributes to the generation of knowledge on the scope of this new tax regime.

Using Environmental Litigation to Advance Ecological Restoration under the Convention on Biological Diversity in China

Abstract In response to unprecedented global biodiversity loss, the obligation of restoration has been integrated into the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD, or Convention). As a Party to the CBD, China has implemented restoration commitments through the ‘National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (2011–2030)’. This article focuses on how such commitments have been translated into the Chinese legal framework and environmental litigation, and how environmental litigation can advance ecological restoration. There exist restoration obligations of governments and individuals. When they fail to fulfil their restoration obligations or cause damage to ecosystems, their wrong actions or inactions can be corrected through restoration orders imposed by Chinese courts, namely primary restoration orders and alternative restoration orders. Also, some weaknesses exist due to relying on forcing defendants to pay to restore damaged ecosystems, including that alternative restoration funds could be misappropriated, and the current legal mechanisms could incentivize a ‘license to trash’ style culture.

Law-making authorities of executive government bodies as the legal basis of their law-making activity

The article examines the essence of the rule-making powers of the executive authorities, the limits of the independence of the executive authority in the exercise of its rule-making powers, the difference between the concept of «independence of the executive power in relation to other branches of government» and the concept of «operational independence of individual divisions of the executive authorities», as well as their interrelationships connection with rule-making activity.
 On the basis of the understanding of the rule-making powers of executive bodies as the powers to establish, change and cancel mandatory rules in the form of issuing bylaws, the conclusion that the rule-making powers of executive bodies are inseparable from their legal status is substantiated, the issue of their appointment as a means of implementation is considered by executive power bodies of their functions, tasks and powers, as well as the need for general control over the exercise of rule-making powers by executive power bodies from the legislative power. The question of the use of discretionary powers by the executive authorities is considered, as their powers to act at their own discretion, choosing from among several prescribed legal options for behavior the one that best meets the needs of achieving the management goal. The conclusion that the rule-making powers of executive authorities serve as the legal basis for rule-making activity and are carried out through rule-making activity is substantiated. By virtue of their importance and impact on social relations, on the rights and obligations of individuals, rule-making powers require the implementation of rule-making activities of executive authorities in a special legal procedural form, since for their rule-making activities it is important and necessary to observe the appropriate method, order and procedures of implementation , while observing the limits of competence. The need for regulatory regulation of the procedure for the implementation of rule-making activities of executive authorities, its high level of formalization, recording of its results, as an activity that is important for keeping executive authorities within their powers, observing the principle of the rule of law, protecting the rights and freedoms of the individual, is substantiated.

The Duel between Effective Altruism and Greed

In this 2022 SEAC Presidential address, I explore the intricate interplay between the notions of greed and Effective Altruism (EA). These notions bear profound implications for both our individual obligations and our collective duties. The dialectic between greed and EA reveals a fundamental conflict. Greed is commonly aligned with the self-centered pursuit of riches, authority, or distinction, often neglecting the well-being of others and the enduring repercussions of one's actions. In contrast, EA stands as a philosophy and societal movement advocating the application of reason and empirical evidence to pinpoint the most efficacious avenues for aiding others and engendering a constructive global influence. Central to EA is the tenet of impartiality and equitable regard for all interests when selecting beneficiaries, resonating across domains such as the prioritization of scientific exploration, entrepreneurial endeavors, and policy undertakings geared towards alleviating suffering and preserving lives.

Beneficence: the moral status of treatment through humanitarian actions

Crowdfunding for medical purposes, which involves the collection of funds from a large number of donors through a public appeal mainly through Internet platforms, is a growing phenomenon worldwide. Medical treatment is by far the most important purpose to which donors in Serbia dedicate their resources. This article focuses on the issue of moral behaviour in the context of medical crowdfunding. It analyses the beneficence principle from the perspective of core ethical theories - utilitarianism, Kantian deontology, and virtue ethics. It then discusses whether the support for treatment is in the realm of duty of charity or duty of justice. It is argued that health needs are morally important, and that society has an obligation to provide health care to guarantee equal opportunities. The appearance of the crowdfunding for medical treatments indicates the shortcomings of the health system, and that the collective duties of justice are not fulfilled. In the absence of a health system that meets the needs of all members of a society, medical crowdfunding can be seen as a potentially justifiable attempt to correct it, as it offers the opportunity for the fulfilment of individual obligations of beneficence. The article argues that it is necessary and morally desirable to act on two apparently opposing tracks - to donate money for medical treatments, while at the same time advocating for the health care system in which treatment will be a guaranteed right, and not a matter of fellow citizens? willingness to fulfil their moral obligation.

Enhancing Global Health Impact—Beyond the Basic Minimum, Metrics and Ethical Consumption

Abstract How should we measure medicines’ global health impact to set targets, monitor performance and improve health around the world? Can such a metric provide a philosophically well-grounded basis for an ethical consumption campaign that will create incentives for pharmaceutical companies and other agents to expand (equitable) access to essential medicines? And if such metrics exist, how should we think about our individual obligations to support ethical consumption campaigns on this basis? This paper reflects on these questions in light of Tim Campbell’s, Yukiko Asada’s, and Andreas Albertsen’s worries about the answers I provide in Global Health Impact: Extending Access on Essential Medicines. I explain how reflecting on treatments consequences for individuals’ ability to live minimally well supports the creation of the Global Health Impact (GHI) index (https://global-health-impact.org/). I also consider how the index might be modified to better support efforts to promote everyone’s human rights. Finally, I argue that individuals should often promote positive change through GHI and other ethical consumption campaigns.

Revisiting the Jihad Ideology in Islamic International Law and its Appropriation by Nonstate Actors

Jihad is quintessentially a religious doctrine and, notwithstanding difficulties of conceptualization, constitutes a foundational principle of both the shari’a (religious law of Islam) and (the siyar) Islamic international law. Jihad, in all its variants, is designed to further the will and dictates of God Almighty and must be distinguished from worldly struggles such as tribal rivalries and national conflicts or international wars. With its focus on Jihad, this article has four key objectives: First, since the Jihad ideology has retained primacy and centrality within the historiography of the siyar, this article critically examines its key facets. Second, in its historical incarnation, Jihad obligations were placed upon the whole of the Muslim community as fard al-kifayah (collective obligation). However, in more recent times, the doctrine has been appropriated almost exclusively by terrorist organizations, who have insisted that Jihad is in fact fard al-‘ayn (individual obligation) to be pursued aggressively by individuals and non-State actors. This appropriation is manifested in the practices of terrorists and radical organizations, including Al-Qaeda and ISIS, as well as by the Taliban regime that retook control of Afghanistan in 2021. In evaluating the adoption and implementation of the Jihad ideology by contemporary terrorist or radical organizations, this article assesses the future direction of this doctrine within contemporary Muslim societies. Third, Jihad, overtime, has adopted the form of Islam’s bellum iustum (just war) and enunciated rules justifying or legitimizing the use of force as well as determining and regulating the conduct of hostilities. The Jihad ideology segments and distinguishes between what is termed as jus ad bellum (laws which provide grounds justifying the use of force) and jus in bello (laws which regulate the conduct of hostilities). This article investigates the various substantial juristic dissensions that exist in the conceptualization of the pre-modern Jihad principles relating to jus in bello and jus ad bellum. Fourth, while the article demonstrates that the Jihad ideology pervades Islamic international law, an investigation into the siyar also provides evidence that Islamic international law has also been significantly engaged with other important subjects within Muslim jurisdictions including diplomatic immunities, international trade and commercial relations.

The role of epistemological beliefs in STEM faculty\u2019s decisions to use culturally relevant pedagogy at Hispanic-Serving Institutions

BackgroundThe growing understanding of the oppressive inequities that exist in postsecondary education has led to an increasing need for culturally relevant pedagogy. Researchers have found evidence that beliefs about the nature of knowledge predict pedagogical practices. Culturally relevant pedagogy supports students in ways that leverage students’ own cultures through three tenets: academic success, cultural competence, and sociopolitical consciousness. If STEM practitioners believe that their disciplines are culture-free, they may not enact culturally relevant pedagogy in their courses. We investigated how and in what forms 40 faculty from mathematics, physics, chemistry, and biology departments at Hispanic-Serving Institutions enacted culturally relevant pedagogy. We used the framework of practical rationality to understand how epistemological beliefs about the nature of their discipline combined with their institutional context impacted instructors’ decision to enact practices aligning with the three tenets of culturally relevant pedagogy.ResultsIn total, 35 instructors reported using practices that aligned with the academic success tenet, nine instructors with the cultural competence tenet, and one instructor with the sociopolitical consciousness tenet. Instructors expressed and even lauded their disciplines’ separation from culture while simultaneously expressing instructional decisions that aligned with culturally relevant pedagogy. Though never asked directly, six instructors made statements reflecting a “culture-free” belief about knowledge in their discipline such as “To me, mathematics has no color.” Five of those instructors also described altering their teaching in ways that aligned with the academic success tenet. The framework of practical rationality helped explain how the instructors’ individual obligation (to the needs of individual students) and interpersonal obligation (to the social environment of the classroom) played a role in those decisions.ConclusionsInstructors’ ability to express two contradictory views may indicate that professional development does not have to change an instructor’s epistemological beliefs about their discipline to convince them of the value of enacting culturally relevant pedagogy. We propose departmental changes that could enable instructors to decide to cultivate students’ cultural competence and sociopolitical consciousness. Our findings highlight the need for future research investigating the impacts of culturally relevant pedagogical content knowledge on students’ experiences.

Constitutional Foundations and Legal Restrictions on Mass Media Freedom in the Republic of Iraq

This article is based on a research work done on Constitutional foundations and legal restrictions on freedom Mass media in the Republic of Iraq. Freedom of the media is a fundamental issue of democracy, because without freedom of the media there is no civil society or rule of law. Awareness of society is a necessary condition for its economic, political and cultural progress. The crucial role of the media and the danger of abuse of freedom of the press force democratic states to determine the legal status of the media and to regulate their activities. In the domestic scientific literature, the concepts of “freedom of information” and “freedom of mass media” are used in meanings that practically coincide with the meanings in which these concepts are used in the legislation of the Republic of Iraq. Only a general reference is made to the legislation of the Republic of Iraq on the media by which such restrictions are established. That is, the wording of Art. 73 reflect a clear imbalance between constitutionally substantiated rights and obligations of individuals related to the exercise of freedom of the media.

TINJAUAN HTUKUM INTERNASIONAL TERHADAP TERJADINYA PELANGGARAN HAM DI INDONESIA


 
 
 
 Human Rights are a set of rights inherent in the nature and existence of humans as creatures of God Almighty and His grace, respected, legalized, and protected by the state, law, government, and all for the honor and protection. Therefore, human rights are inherent human rights and must be respected, protected and protected by all individuals or society as a natural and fundamental gift. In essence, efforts to respect, protect, and enforce human rights are a shared obligation and responsibility of individuals, the government, and the nation. However, Indonesia is not yet independent and there are many human rights violations, so there are still many cases of human rights violations in Indonesia. Human rights violations are caused by internal and external factors. Internal factors such as egoism, low awareness of human rights, and intolerance. External factors such as abuse of power, indecision by law enforcement officers, abuse of technology, and high levels of social and economic inequality.
 
 
 

Общая характеристика сирийского Закона об охране исторических памятников

Relevance. One of the most important tasks of the state at the present stage of development is to preserve the universally recognized achievements of the cultural and historical life of our ancestors. Respect for one's past is of particular importance for the formation of a national ethno-cultural identity. The Syrian legislation has a unique character in this part, where at the same time a criminal law norm and a norm of the Law on the Protection of Historical Monuments can be applied to the perpetrator. Despite the fact that the Law on the Protection of Historical Monuments is an integral part of criminal legislation, it defines the rights and obligations of both individuals and legal entities, specifies the powers of state bodies, i.e. performs not only a protective, but also a regulatory function. The ongoing armed conflict in Syria, when historical monuments are being destroyed, underlines the urgency of the study of protective legislation. The purpose of this study is an in-depth characterization of the law on the protection of cultural and historical heritage monuments, the development of theoretical provisions and recommendations for improving the legislation of the protection law and protection of cultural and historical heritage monuments. Objectives. These goals lead to the formulation and solution of the following tasks: to present the concept and types of objects of cultural and historical heritage; to determine the specifics of the legal regulation of the order of preservation of ancient monuments; to identify problems and propose ways to solve them in the field of regulation of the protective legislation of Syria of cultural heritage objects. Methodology. In the course of the study, the subsequent methods were used: analytical, formal-legal, and ab-straction methods, which make it possible to formulate the main conclusions. Results. Proposals have been formulated that may be useful in the development of the Law on Antiquities. Conclusion. The present study tackles issues such as the definition of ancient monuments, their types, the provisions on the right of ownership and some legal norms according to which these monuments are protected, as well as on the types of crimes committed against cultural heritage objects.

Abuse of Power by Government Applications on Government Policies During the Covid-19 Pandemic in Indonesia

In a democratic country, government power is obtained from the consent of the people, that the people are sovereign and give legitimacy to the power they want. The principle of popular sovereignty states that no individual, group of people or an elite has the right to determine and impose (demand with threats) how others should obey. Indonesia, which is led by a president and assisted by ministers, must be able to use the power and authority it has properly and responsibly. In government policies, there are moral rights and obligations of individuals aimed at the welfare of the wider community. Apparatus who have good morals will produce and implement policies with an orientation to the public interest. However, there are still government officials, including the Minister of the Second Advanced Indonesian Cabinet, who are considered to have abused their power with corruption that is not in accordance with legal, social, religious and humanitarian norms, even during the limited period due to the prolonged Covid-19 pandemic. That power can influence the actions of a government official towards policies that should be carried out properly, as well as the level of awareness of the individual if the power he has belongs to the people, not private property for the benefit of individuals or an elite group, so that public trust in the government can be well maintained.

Betterment capture for social redistribution: A developer obligation for touristic developments

This article presents the results of a research project on the design of a particular value capture instrument in the form of a development obligation. This has been modelled to capture part of the betterment engendered by tourism-oriented plans. The article subsequently explores the potential of applying this levy in the interest of social goals, thus complementing traditional municipal funding sources. The concept is applied to the Urban Zoning Plan of the Planning Unit 11 of the municipality of Lagoa, located in the Algarve, Portugal. It tries to overcome several gaps and contradictions identified in the literature and in the planning practices of different value capture instruments in diversified urban contexts. These shortcomings refer to: (i) uncertainties as to why the land value rises; (ii) undefined thresholds between betterment and profit; (iii) the classification of value capture whether as a tax or as an instrument of wealth redistribution; (iv) the application of the captured value; (v) dilemmas between private property rights and citizens’ rights over betterments due to public decisions; (vi) public regulation versus free market operation; (vii) responsibilities, benefits and obligations of private individuals in urban development; and (viii) the design, execution as well as the risks of capture instruments. This adds to the specific requirements enforced by the Portuguese Land Act regarding the economic and financial sustainability of urban development.This instrument is based on objective, reliable, and comparable data. This data is organised into a management information system which supports a flexible and continually updatable model to assess betterments engendered by public decisions. This model is easily generalizable to other urban contexts.Finally, the potential of the proposed instrument to achieve social goals is assessed against the background of factors such as the fiscal challenges currently faced by municipalities, the rising importance of increasingly diversified stakeholders and their awareness of issues of sustainability in urban development.

Ethics of Belief, Trust and Epistemic Value: The Case of the Scientific Controversy Surrounding the Measles Vaccine

An anxious belief that the vaccine against measles may cause autism in children has circulated since 1998. This belief has resulted in a worldwide reduction of vaccination coverage. Between 1998 and 2004, the scientific community was engaged in an intense debate over proof of vaccine safety. The question is then to examine the justification and the acceptance of this anxious belief by scientists, journalists, and parents. What are the epistemic obligations of individuals when scientific evidence is lacking? Therefore, the ethics of belief will be questioned through a contemporary socio-historical case study because it permits the examination of belief, knowledge and confidence mechanisms, and the attribution of epistemic values when it is difficult to produce indisputable evidence.

Classical and contemporary approaches to the study of solidarity: Challenges and perspectives under destructuration

Since the 19th century, when the development of the modern society accelerated, social cohesion factors have become relevant for theory and practice. Such issues as the national states development and emerging political parties, the division of labor and class and professional forms of solidarity have formed the agenda of both academic and policymaking debates. In recent decades, there has been another round of interest in the study of social cohesion and sustainability under de-colonization, emancipation, inequality and technological changes. Under the global pandemic, the issue of solidarity has become particularly acute. The covid-19 has created a new reality: millions of people live in the forced social isolation, and such key social institutions as education, culture and healthcare have been reconstructed with the usual forms of interpersonal interaction eliminated. This situation requires rethinking the rights and obligations of individuals together with the forms of appropriate social control and regulation. For instance, the ability of individuals to take initiative at the micro-level (like volunteer projects) turned out to be especially important for the public well-being. The authors consider the research on solidarity in social sciences taking into account the current trends of structural instability or destructuration. The authors analyze both classical theories of solidarity and contemporary related concepts to prove that microsociology focuses primarily on the reproduction of social structures rather than on their transformation by proactive individual or group agency. Moreover, the tradition of structural macro-analysis also ignores the formation of solidarity at the micro-level. The authors refer to the works of P.A. Sorokin and M. Archer who consider individuals as capable of proactive formation of solidarity. In contemporary studies, the authors identify two main approaches to the analysis of solidarity - rational and structure-determined, and analyze other prospective approaches developing at the intersection of philosophy and psychology. The authors conclude by suggesting some directions in the study of the solidarity-oriented individual action and its impact on societal development.

ETHICAL CODES OF CONDUCT FOR THE DIGITAL ECONOMY ENTITIES: THE LEGAL ASPECT

Background.The use of IT tools in the business sphere requires special legal regulation, given the excellent mechanism of consolidation from areas where the figure is not yet used or its use is quite limited. An important tool of regulatory self-regulation are codes of ethics in the digital economy, which only take into account certain features of digital transformations and are a universal trend of modern development of legal regulation of the economy in Ukraine and the world. Analysis of recent research and publications. The analysis of types, the content of ethical codes in the field of digital economy is not paid enough attention, which actualizes the purpose of this scientific article. The aim of the study is to determine the features of codes of ethics in the digital economy. Materials and methods. During the study, both general scientific and special methods of cognition were used: dialectical, systemic, synergetic, formal-logical, generalization, functional, comparative jurisprudence. The information base of the study was national legislation, EU directives, works of domestic and foreign scientists, codes of conduct of international IT companies. Results. The following types of codes of ethics (codes of professional ethics) depending on the subject, the subjects of their development and adoption in the digital economy are identified: codes of ethics in a particular area of the digital economy; codes of ethics of a separate professional community; codes of ethics (codes of professional ethics) of an individual business entity. Codes of ethics in a particular area of the digital economy are a collection of rules and standards of conduct developed by a community, an association of different professions, in order to develop common principles and policies in a particular market. Codes of ethics of a particular professional community are a collection of rules and standards of conduct that are developed by a particular community on a professional basis and that operate in the digital economy. Codes of ethics (codes of professional ethics) of an individual business entity are internal organizational documents of a specific business entity, an element of its foreign and domestic policy, which sets out the rules of activity for the company’s citizens, limits of liability, etc. Conclusion. It has been established that the digital economy is primarily an area that has emerged through self-regulation, so the development of regulationin the digital economy should be linked to the ethics of using the tools of digital transformation. It has been found that the self-regulation of the digital economy takes into account the flexibility of various tools, including codes of ethics. It is established that the structure and content of codes of ethics (codes of professional ethics) of each company is different. The content of such codes usually includes global trends of modern business requirements: sustainable development policy, respect for human rights, corporate social responsibility, compliance with anti-corruption, tax laws, etc., and special, which reflect the individual obligations of a particular company. Keywords: digital economy, code of ethics, code of professional ethics, business entity, sustainable development, business and human rights, corporate social responsibility, artificial intelligence.

BEYNƏLXАLQ FƏRDİ ÖHDƏLİKLƏR VƏ FƏRDLƏRİN BEYNƏLXАLQ MƏSULİYYƏTİ

Depending on the state, an individual may not have the procedural capacity to appeal to the Court, but as a result of changes in the international community, they have gained the right to sue in international courts. This development is a factor that will be taken into account in all research on the international subjectivity of the individual. Key words: International individual obligations, legal sanctions, UN Charter, legal responsibility, international military tribunal