Indian Philosophical Tradition Research Articles

The Poet-Creator of Philosophy: To the Methodology of Research in Philosophical Thought by Rabindranath Tagore

The Indian poet and educator Rabindranath Tagore was the creator of an original philosophy that gives additional meaning to the picture of the history of Indian philosophy in the 20th century. He usually emphasized his identity as a poet and an artist, not considering himself a philosopher. However, Tagore embodies the phenomenon of a poet-thinker who comprehends universal philosophical problems and, in the process of philosophizing, offers his own vision of them. Moreover, he owns a number of texts of a religious-philosophical and socio-philosophical nature, in addition to the content of poetry and fiction. The philosophy created by the poet requires a comprehensive holistic study, which, in turn, raises the problem of research methodology. The article proposes the author's methodology for the reconstruction of Rabindranath Tagore's philosophy, based on an understanding of his personality, the contexts of thought and the hermeneutics of texts. The methodological model of philosophy reconstruction includes three levels. The first involves analyzing the personality of R. Tagore using the categories "cross-cultural thinker" and "problematic thinker". The second is a description of the contexts of his philosophizing: external general civilizational, internal epochal and internal biographical. The third is the hermeneutics of texts, taking into account the poetic component and the philosophical problems of speeches and fiction. The novelty of the described methodological model is due to the possibilities and prospects of reconstructing Tagore's philosophical thought and concepts. 1. Description of the phenomenon of a poet and writer creating a philosophy in which the experience of artistic creation generates a universal religious and social meaning and actualizes humanistic issues. 2. Presentation of the process of formation of cross-cultural philosophy of the XX century on the material of a particular thinker. 3. The analysis of the contexts of the unfolding of philosophy helps to trace the continuity of the thinker and his ideas with the Indian philosophical tradition in a broad sense and at the same time identify innovation, not least due to his dialogue with Western culture and modernity. 4. Seeing Tagore's philosophy as a kind of quintessence of the Bengali Renaissance heritage, it is not difficult to notice its significance and relevance for modernity. 5. Reconstruction along the proposed methodological path will open up not only direct, but also comparative prospects for studying Tagore's philosophical thought in comparison with the reflections of philosophers from different cultural areas, primarily peripheral to the West and non-Western ones.

Making of Contemporary Indian Philosophy and Dilemmas of Demanded Change: A Critical Study of Swaraj in Light of Neo-Vedanta

One of the legacies of Western philosophical thought has been its evolution through movements and slogans such as modernism, postmodernism, existentialism and analyticism. These popular intellectual standpoints have contributed to making Western culture more dialogical and progressive. However, in contrast, exploration of socio-philosophical movements within the Indian philosophical tradition, except for ancient times, remains relatively uncharted territory. Acknowledging this variance, the present article investigates the evolution of contemporary Indian philosophy during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. It examines the core unifying principle that bound together eminent figures such as Swami Vivekananda, Rabindranath Tagore, Mahatma Gandhi, Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, K. C. Bhattacharyya and numerous others of their category, all classified as Neo-Vedantists. Precisely, the philosophy or movement under scrutiny is Swaraj, illuminated through the lens of Neo-Vedanta, presenting a distinctive perspective on human values and change.

Значение слова и смысл предложения ранней ми­мансы

A correlation between Indian linguaphilosophy and Western philosophy of language is possible with regard to the question of meaning – one of the main issues of any linguo-philosophical teaching. The Indian philosophical tradition, represented by orthodox schools, the main of which is the so-called mīmāṃsā, was guided by the authority of sa­cred scripture – the Vedas, and through critical argumentation was engaged in under­standing and interpreting their content, and therefore unique linguo-philosophical ideas were formed. This work presents the ideas of mīmāṃsā, the general picture of which can be formulated as follows: 1) the doctrine joins the theory of the non-human origin of lan­guage as opposed to the theory of convention; 2) a transcendental approach to language is defended, where the eternal, a priori connection of words and meanings is affirmed, which is the opposite of the naturalistic view; 3) an activity-based approach to the mean­ing of statements/sentences is formulated, which is due to the categorical pair sādhya-sid­dha, i.e. “subject to implementation – realized”, in other words, the logic of process-re­sult, founded in the philosophical teaching of mīmāṃsā, and opposed to the logic of sub­ject-predicate, based on the pair of concepts dharma-dharmin, on which other representa­tives of Indian philosophical thought build their teachings. The work also draws parallels between the mīmāṃsā tradition and the ancient Indian linguistic tradition – vyākaraṇa, which allows us to clarify the nature of the linguo-philosophical ideas of the former, and also describes the theories of the meaning of sentences of the medieval mīmāṃsā – an­vitābhidhāna-vāda and abhihitānvaya-vāda. The linguistic philosophy of the mīmāṃsā tradition, and, in particular, the advocacy of a non-naturalistic attitude to language and an activity-based or even pragmatic approach to the interpretation of sentences is unique both for the history of Indian philosophy and from the point of view of the Western tradi­tion of philosophy of language.

Проблема выразимости невыразимого: слово-звук, сознание и реальность в индийской мысли

For traditional Indian philosophy, which tends to establish its identity on the basis of the rationally incognizable Absolute (Ātman, Brahman), the verbal expressibility of the latter is one of the central issues. In fact, what is at stake here, is an attitude to language, trust or distrust in its capacity to be a tool for transmitting the experience of reality, which for the Indian tradition is of the highest soteriological and metaphysical value. Namely, it is the experience characteristic of the culminating transpersonal states of meditation and yogic practices, as well as at the moment of unio mystica (between a believer and the personal God). The best way to point to such states is to demonstrate their radical otherness in comparison with everyday speech behaviour (vyavahāra) and discursive ways of reporting it. That is why, the apophatic approach is used, meanwhile, that does not exclude the applicability of its cataphatic opposite. In the first part of the paper, the author emphasizes a tendency to privilege the apophatic approach (‘not that, not that’) to the definition of Brahman on the example of some mahāvākya (‘great sayings’) from the Upaniṣhads. In the second part, the author elucidates a phenomenon of phonocentrism, characteristic of traditional Indian culture, taking as example an incarnation of the goddess Vāk (Speech) in Vedic literature and in Tantrism. The third part is devoted to Bhartṛihari’s (ca.V century A.D.) concepts of ‘linguistic monism’ (śabda-advaita), and of the three-part speech, and their culmination in Kashmiri Shaivism. The author shows that in Bharitṛhari and Kashmiri’ s expressibility and inexpressibility of vocalized speech does not presuppose the recognition of a separate reality of object referred to by it (correspondence principle), but varied within the boundaries of the word (śabda) itself as identical to the dynamic nature of Brahman constituted by potencies (śakti).

On the Perceptibility of Motion: An Inquiry from the Indian Philosophical Traditions

This paper discusses an important issue regarding the concept of motion from the perspective of Indian philosophical traditions. We can recognise two camps in Indian philosophical schools regarding the epistemic means (pramana) through which one cognises motion. Some Indian philosophical schools claim that motion is completely imperceptible and one infers motion by perceiving contact and separation of an object with another object or space. Among these schools, we have considered Patanjali and Ramanuja (the author of Tantrarahasya) as the main advocators of this position. The other group claims that motion is perceptible and we infer motion only when the object possessing the motion is not perceptible. Supporters of this position are mainly the Nyaya-Vaisesika school and Narayanabhatta the author of Manameyodaya. While summarising and critically analysing these positions, we support the view that motion is perceptible by showing the following: (1) The position that motion is non-perceptible leads to some ontological issues (2) The position that motion is perceptible is more economical and simpler.

Exploring the Notion of Time: A Comparative Study of Indian Philosophical Tradition and Modern Scientific Theories

Exploring the Notion of Time: A Comparative Study of Indian Philosophical Tradition and Modern Scientific Theories

Nature of soul according to Vedic thought (वैदिक चिन्तन के अनुसार जीवात्मा का स्वरूप)

According to Vedic thought tradition, God, soul and nature are the three eternal elements. These three elements never arise and end, have always existed and will always exist. Their qualities, deeds and nature are also eternal. In the Indian philosophical tradition it is called 'Trinity'. 'Prakriti' has only one quality of existence. Prakriti is not conscious but just inert. The soul has two qualities - Sat and Chit, that is, the soul has existence as well as consciousness. The soul is of little knowledge, a native, of little power and free to act. Though free to act, he is enslaved to enjoy the fruits of his actions. The soul lacks the quality called joy. This is his shortcoming. Therefore, he is always ready to get happiness. In this research paper, we have tried to tell the real nature of the soul according to Vedic thinking, how according to Indian philosophical tradition, Vedic thinking tradition, soul, nature and God are the three eternal elements, which always exist, the soul is in the fruits of action, and She is free to do but due to lack of pleasure, she is always ready to get pleasure because it resides in the heart and is said to be produced by the body itself. Just tried to bring different forms. Keyword- soul nature conscious God soul

К вопросу об интерпретации праманьи (prāmāṇya)

This work is devoted to the problems of true knowledge in Indian philosophy. As a starting point of the study, the author analyzes the article of the American philosopher and indologist Karl Potter (1927–2022) “Does Indian Epistemology Concern Justified True Belief?” The author of the introductory article briefly outlines the main problematics of Potter’s work concerning the problem of the truth of knowledge in the Indian philosophical tradition, which is built around the Sanskrit term prāmāṇya and the classical controversy between the theories of svataḥ-prāmāṇya and parataḥ-prāmāṇya, and also the author analyzes the interpretation of the term prāmāṇya proposed by Potter from the point of view of a pragmatic attitude, expressed by the concept of workabil­ity, borrowed from representatives of American pragmatism.

Rethinking the History of Modern Psychology-A Book Review of ‘Psychology in Modern India: Historical, Methodological, and Future Perspectives’

Historiography entails a social construction which is closely linked to questions of power and resistance. Scholars frequently challenge dominant histories, allowing for the emergence of newer ones. The current article is a review of these new constructions of the history of psychology in modern India, as envisioned by a group of scholars and researchers in the book 'Psychology in Modern India: Historical, Methodological, and Future Perspectives'. These scholars and researchers actively debate the past, challenge dominant hierarchies, and present their vision for the future in the book under review. The book is a watershed moment in the ongoing effort to piece together the history of psychology in modern India and must be understood within the context of the editors' chosen framework that is critical of the positivist tradition and emphasizes Indian philosophical traditions, cultural and contextual relevance. The book is divided into 28 chapters that acknowledge the accomplishments of several Indian pioneers, describe disciplinary routes in major Indian institutions, track the development of certain sub-fields of psychology in the Indian setting, and reflect on many macro and methodological issues. The current article presents a critical review of this book.

Nothingness Is All There Is: An Exploration of Objectless Awareness During Sleep.

Recent years have seen a heightened focus on the study of minimal forms of awareness during sleep to advance the study of consciousness and understand what makes a state conscious. This focus draws on an increased interest in anecdotical descriptions made by classic Indian philosophical traditions about unusual forms of awareness during sleep. For instance, in the so-called state of witnessing-sleep or luminosity sleep, one is said to reach a state that goes beyond ordinary dreaming and abide in a state of just awareness, a state in which one is not aware of anything else other than one’s own awareness. Moreover, for these traditions, this state is taken to be the essence or background of consciousness. Reports on such a state opens the door to exciting new lines of research in the study of consciousness, such as inquiry into the so-called objectless awareness during sleep—states of awareness that lack an ordinary object of awareness. In this two-staged research project, we attempted to find the phenomenological blueprints of such forms of awareness during sleep in 18 participants by conducting phenomenological interviews, informed by a novel tool in qualitative research, the micro-phenomenological interview (MPI) method. Following a phenomenological analysis, we isolated a similar phase across 12 reported experiences labeled as “nothingness phase” since it described what participants took to be an experience of “nothingness.” This common phase was characterized by minimal sense of self—a bodiless self, yet experienced as being “somewhere”—, the presence of non-modal sensations, relatively pleasant emotions, an absence of visual experience, wide and unfocused attention, and an awareness of the state as it unfolded.

DURR HANS-PETER FRAGMENT FROM THE BOOK “MATTER DOES NOT EXIST!”

This translation contains the preface and the first two chapters from the last book of W. Heisenberg’s disciple Hans-Peter Duerr “Matter does not exist!” The book is devoted to the problem of interpretation of quantum mechanics. The author, G.-P. Duerr, raises the question of the need for a new view of the fundamental issues of physics and philosophy in general, while he turns to the experience of the Indian philosophical tradition, primarily relies on the Advaita Vedanta school. The author focuses on the concepts of “transcendence”, “immanence”, “cognition”, etc. The problematic of this work lies in the field of not only physics, metaphysics and religion, but also psychology, intercultural interaction.

Teaching dissent: Epistemic resources from Indian philosophical systems

How does one teach dissent in a classroom which is a disciplinary space? As a pedagogue whose work is to instil philosophical and critical thinking in students, in this article I reflect on the modalities of teaching dissent versus teaching about dissent. While it is very possible that teaching about dissent may create a model for students to emulate, teaching dissent must involve a proactive learning process within the classroom that may depend on the ethical and compassionate stand of the teacher. I draw from Indian philosophical traditions of argumentation and the tradition of debate and teaching to posit a methodology of two forms of dissent called Vimati, intellectual dissent and Upeksha, performative dissent. One notes that conceptualisations such as doubt, questioning, evidence, and advocacy are some of the epistemic ideas from Indian philosophical systems that can be adapted to contemporary pedagogy. Additionally, a form of performative dissent that involves ‘turning away’ from norms becomes a form of performative dissent. Such dissent is described through texts as practices in the lived worlds of people in the stories of epics and folk traditions. Finally, I conclude with similar concepts gleaned from contemporary thinkers in India to emphasise the ethical values of compassion and love that make teaching dissent possible.

Consciousness in Indian philosophy and modern physics

This paper makes an explorative journey into the concept of consciousness (prajna) as explained in the Indian philosophy (both orthodox and heterodox) and modern physics. The paper explains about knowledge domains in the traditions and their distinctive features, different connotations, and denotations of consciousness, the different methods being used in explaining consciousness. The current scientific analyses of consciousness from the stand point of theoretical and quantum physics are discussed here and compared with the concept of consciousness in the Indian philosophical traditions.

Concept of Ānanda in Śrīmad Bhāgavad Gītā

The Vedanta is prominent philosophies among Indian philosophical traditions. It announces that every organism lives for ānanda. Whatever the people do in their life is for the sake of happiness, but happiness is not the thing which can be bought by expensed money in the market or can be borrowed from outside. It is the eternal thing which can be obtained only by elevation in human consciousness. It describes the fundamentals of the ānanda in detailed way with fundamental notions. The most popular and much-discussed text Śrīmad Bhāgavad Gītā also elaborates this concept of ānanda in a scattered way. Mostly, Gītā is perceived as a religious and action, motivating text while the other aspects are still hidden and untouched. There is no systematic research found on the elaboration of the ānanda and its acquiring methodology. This research study discusses the concept of ānanda from various perspectives of description acquired by the Sri Krishna while explaining the ultimate truth to the Arjuna. It also investigates the description with their attaining methodologies and practices that can be applicable in day-to-day life.

Культура Індії як своєрідний досвід культурної ідентифікації

The article is dedicated to the consideration of the phenomenon of India as an indicative example of the productivity of the spiritual and ideological potential immanent in its historical heritage and social practices, as the basis of the identification process as an affirmation of unity for such a culturally diverse region. The bringing to light of the cultural identity of India, reconstructed at one time in the research of the patriotic intellectual elite, has become that productive self-determination ("the discovery of India"), which, having played its role in preserving its authenticity under foreign cultural pressure, remains relevant for successful self-development in complex globalization processes of multicultural world community. The principles of "synthesis, assimilation, development", "search for truth in a non-violent way", "unity in diversity" became the cultural codes that make up the core of the identification of the Indian cultural community. Through the actualization of the ancient spiritual tradition, the Indian reformers realized the inherent in the Indian philosophical and spiritual tradition the ability to synthesize, on the one hand, with the cultural layer of the past, and, on the other hand, with those innovations, albeit another cultural, even opposite (European Christian tradition, rationalism) , which, under the condition of tolerant, without vain denial, perception (assimilation of experience, models of other peoples who came to the subcontinent), productively complemented the cultural capacity of India. The modern large-scale globalization of socio-cultural life accentuate the importance of the problem of cultural identification as a process not only of individual identification (identity) with the world of one's community, but also of collective self-determination in the formation and preservation of a unique cultural whole. The threat of erosion of meaningful semantic, value, symbolic orientations of unity actualize cultural studies of this problem. The culture of India provides a vivid experience of long-term preservation of the cultural integrity known for its ethnocultural diversity, the complex socio-historical conditions of the region's existence, which appears to be very productive both for theoretical studies of cultural regionalism and for further cultural studies of identification.

The spaciousness of self-awareness: A phenomenological account of self-reflexivity in Patañjali´s Yoga philosophy

ABSTRACT Like many other discussions regarding the nature of self-awareness in Classical Indian philosophical traditions, the commentators of Patañjali’s Yogaśāstra deployed the metaphor of light or luminosity to defend the position that consciousness is self-reflexive. In this paper I discuss the way the commentarial tradition of Classical Yoga misinterpreted Patañjali’s notion of self-reflexivity and articulate his account of self-awareness based on Vyāsa’s preferred metaphor of space (ākāśa). I also show how Patañjali´s notion of self-awareness could be understood in terms of “spaciousness” by using Merleau-Ponty’s phenomenology of perception and Dan Zahavi’s studies on the first-person perspective.

Consciousness, Cognition, Neuroses and the Practice of Rajyoga

The Indian philosophical tradition believes that Self or Soul is the source of Consciousness and which one experiences through the five senses by means of attention, intention, thoughts, desire, memory, beliefs, ideas, attitude, action and behavior. Effort is made to explain the relationship between Consciousness and human cognitive processes and their bearing on neurotic symptoms. Additionally, it is explained how the Indian and Western psychologies understand Consciousness and its application in real life by referring to the practice of Rajyoga. It is contended that when the physical location and the role of Consciousness is understood, it is likely to facilitate the cognitive capabilities of individual and helps in modifying behaviour and reduces anxiety, stress, depression (i.e., neuroses) and gives protection from life- style diseases.

Concept of mind in Indian philosophy, Western philosophy, and psychology

This article makes an explorative journey into the concepts of mind as explained in the Indian philosophical traditions and Western psychology. The article explains about knowledge domains in the traditions and their distinctive features, different connotations and denotations of mind, and the different methods being used in explaining mind. Yet, they may not appear to be opposed or conflicting in nature. The article elaborates on the concepts such as mind (manas) and mind apparatus (citta) in Indian philosophical traditions and compares with the traditional Western psychology where the primary emphasis is given to the mind. The article indicates that in the Indian philosophical tradition, mind helps in knowing consciousness, whereas in the Western paradigm, mind becomes the subject as well as the object of knowing. Knowing gives an understanding of the truth and could lead to realization. In the Eastern tradition, knowing becomes a being and becoming. This knowledge of the self (ātman) helps the individual in attaining happiness (sukha) and welfare (abhyudaya) in this world and realization of the supreme reality (Brahman) leading to liberation (mokṣa). Thus, knowing and understanding about consciousness become complementary in both the traditions.

Can yoga lead to maladaptive plasticity resulting in disorder of motor control?

The practice of yoga is based on the traditional Indian philosophy. Children during their development show adaptive neuroplasticity which is due to long-term potentiation that causes changes in the synaptic transmission. Excessive plasticity in the developing brain can lead to maladaptive neuronal circuits which can cause hyperkinetic movement disorders. It is not clear at what age yoga should be started and whether certain yogas or yogas done improperly can lead to maladaptive plasticity. We report here an unusual case of tic disorder which was precipitated by yoga.

“The Religion of Man”: Spiritual Experience, Freedom and Tradition in the Philosophy of Rabindranath Tagore

The author offers a research of the philosophy of Indian poet, writer and thinker Rabindranath Tagore based on hermeneutical analysis of his book “The Religion of Man”. In terms of phenomenological approach the philosophy of the Indian thinker is described as a combination of spiritual experience in contemplation the Supreme Being, the freedom as a methodological approach, the tradition as the source of thought as well as the proof for the correctness of ideas, which is appropriate to Tagore. Having put himself within the tradition of Vedic rishis’ contemplation, the poet developed his own philosophy (ontology and anthropology). The philosophy of Tagore's religious humanism can be described as a synthesis of freedom of thinking and various Indian unorthodox philosophical traditions. The key idea of Tagore's ontology is jīvan-devatā ('the Lord of life’) the eternal Personality and Supreme Man, the Creator of the Universe and human beings. The phenomenon of a human being is the pivotal point in the development of the universe because he is considered there as an expression of the Truth and the Meaning of a life. The Tagore’s philosophy in this respect is far from the traditional Indian understanding of the phenomenon of a human being. Along with the teaching about the links of human soul to the Brahman (jīvan-devatā), the human as the result of Creation is being considered as His co-creator in the World and the Life, the main figure in evolution, the maker of Civilization and the Creator of culture. Man is understood as free, future-oriented and creative being. Tagore affirms for India the idea of value of human freedom, dignity and his earthly life not only for spiritual liberation (mukti), but for other people, society and culture.