Incorporation Of Cellulose Nanocrystals Research Articles

Optimization of nanocomposite films based on quinoa protein isolate incorporated with cellulose nanocrystal and starch

This research aimed to prepare quinoa protein isolate (QPI) based nanocomposite films reinforced with starch and cellulose nanocrystals (CNC). The range of QPI, starch, and CNC contents were chosen as 60%–80%, 10%–30%, and 2.5%–7%, respectively, by mixture design approach. The effect of CNC and starch on physicochemical, mechanical, and barrier properties of the films were then investigated. The obtained results showed that the addition of starch and CNC improved the mechanical properties of films. The incorporation of CNC reduced the film water vapor permeability (WVP). In addition, transparency of the films increased with increasing protein and starch content and reducing CNC content. Furthermore, the optimal formulation of the composite was determined as 78.55% protein, 18.28% starch, and 3.17% CNC. Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy of the film prepared according to optimal formulation demonstrated the interaction of the film's constituents, and its scanning electric spectroscopy (SEM) image was in agreement with the physical and mechanical properties the nanocomposite film. Novelty impact statement Protein extracted from quinoa seeds using alkaline method with high purity (83%). The optimal formulation obtained with 78.55% protein, 18.28% starch, and 3.17% CNC. The optimal film is recommended for packaging of aromatic foodstuff.

Extraction of cellulose nanocrystals from areca waste and its application in eco-friendly biocomposite film

Areca nut husk fibers are easily available and they are abundant agricultural waste, whose utilization to high value products needs more attention. The present study aims at the extraction of cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) from areca nut husk fibers and the evaluation of its reinforcement capacity in polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) and chitosan (CS) film. The CNC showed rod-like structures, which were confirmed by TEM and AFM analysis. The diameter of the isolated CNC was 19 ± 3.3 nm; the length was about 195 ± 24 nm with an aspect ratio of 10.2 ± 6.8. The zeta potential of CNC was −15.3 ± 1.2 mV. Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy analysis showed that the non-cellulosic compounds were effectively eliminated, and the X-ray diffraction results showed that CNC had higher crystallinity than the raw, alkali, and the bleached fibers. Thermogravimetric analysis revealed good thermal stability for the CNC. Moreover, the effects of the incorporation of CNC on the optical and tensile behaviours of the bionanocomposite film were investigated. The bionanocomposite film retained the same transparency as the PVA/CS film, indicating that the CNC was disseminated evenly in the film. The incorporation of CNC (3 wt%) to the PVA/CS film enhanced the tensile strength of the bionanocomposite film (9.46 ± 1.6 MPa) when compared to the control films (7.81 ± 1.4 MPa). Furthermore, the prepared nanobiocomposite film exhibited good antimicrobial activity against foodborne pathogenic bacteria and postharvest pathogenic fungi. These findings suggest that the bionanocomposite film might be suitable for food packaging applications.

Cellulose Nanocrystals Reinforced Zein/Catechin/β-Cyclodextrin Inclusion Complex Nanoparticles Nanocomposite Film for Active Food Packaging.

In this study, following the green, environmentally friendly and sustainable development strategy, cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) were prepared through a solvent-free esterification reaction between microcrystalline cellulose and maleic anhydride, combined with subsequent ultrasonic treatment, and maleic-anhydride-modified CNC-reinforced zein/catechin/β-cyclodextrin inclusion complex nanoparticles nanocomposite films were prepared by a facile solution casting. The amount of CNCs in the film matrix was 0–8 wt%, and their effect on structural, physicochemical and functional properties of the resulting films were investigated. SEM images showed that the addition of CNCs made the microstructure of the film more smooth and uniform. The intermolecular hydrogen bonds between CNCs and film matrix were supported by FT-IR. XRD analysis also confirmed the appearance of a crystalline peak due to the existence of CNCs inside the films. The incorporation of CNCs significantly reduced water vapor permeability, water solubility and the swelling degree of the nanocomposite film, and also significantly increased tensile strength and elongation at break from 12.66 to 37.82 MPa and 4.5% to 5.2% (p < 0.05). Moreover, nanocomposite film packaging with CNCs can effectively inhibit the oxidation of soybean oil.

Development of Chitosan-Gelatin Nanofibers with Cellulose Nanocrystals for Skin Protection Applications

In this work, natural-based and biodegradable nanofibers were produced by electrospinning for drug delivery and wound dressing applications, using gelatin (Gel), chitosan (CS), cellulose nanocrystals (CNC) and natural propolis extract. The polymeric formulations and electrospinning parameters were optimized, resulting in the development of Gel/CS nanofibers with mean diameters of 97 nm. CNC were successfully introduced into the optimized Gel/CS solution and the viscosity and conductivity values were recorded. The developed nanofibers were characterized using FESEM, ATR-FTIR, TGA and WCA. The incorporation of different CNC concentrations improved the solutions’ electrospinnability and the membranes’ physical integrity. Defect-free and uniform Gel/CS/CNC nanofibers were observed by FESEM images, and the fibers’ diameters slight increased. The hydrophilic character was maintained after the CNC incorporation. Finally, Gel/CS/CNC/Propolis nanofibers demonstrated antibacterial activity against both Gram-negative (E. coli) and Gram-positive (S. aureus) bacteria.

Preparation and characterization of bionanocomposite films based on wheat starch and reinforced with cellulose nanocrystals

In recent times, the attention of scientific community has been focusing on the replacement of petroleum-based polymers by others more environmentally friendly. In this sense, bionanocomposites based on glycerol-plasticized wheat starch and reinforced with cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) were prepared by a solvent-casting process to obtain environmentally friendly films. The plasticization process was proven to be complete in the conditions used and no residual crystallinity was observed in any case. The incorporation of CNCs leads to materials with increased rigidity (about 1000% increment in modulus) which is related to a good filler-matrix interaction and to the formation of a rigid crystalline network of cellulose. This fact allowed also to improve the moisture resistance and the barrier properties (in both, oxygen and water vapor as permeant) of the bionanocomposite films due to the formation of a tortuous path, which prevent the gas diffusion. Moreover, the thermal stability of films was not affected by the filler incorporation. These improvements in the properties make these films susceptible to be used in short-time applications in the food packaging industry.

Development and Characterization of Electrospun Fiber-Based Poly(ethylene-co-vinyl Alcohol) Films of Application Interest as High-Gas-Barrier Interlayers in Food Packaging.

In the present study, poly(ethylene-co-vinyl alcohol) with 44 mol % ethylene content (EVOH44) was managed to be processed, for the first time, by electrospinning assisted by the coaxial technology of solvent jacket. In addition to this, different suspensions of cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs), with contents ranging from 0.1 to 1.0 wt %, were also electrospun to obtain hybrid bio-/non-bio nanocomposites. The resultant fiber mats were thereafter optimally annealed to promote interfiber coalescence at 145 °C, below the EVOH44 melting point, leading to continuous transparent fiber-based films. The morphological analysis revealed the successful distribution of CNCs into EVOH44 up to contents of 0.5 wt %. The incorporation of CNCs into the ethylene-vinyl alcohol copolymer caused a decrease in the crystallization and melting temperatures (TC and Tm) of about 12 and 7 °C, respectively, and also crystallinity. However, the incorporation of CNCs led to enhanced thermal stability of the copolymer matrix for a nanofiller content of 1.0 wt %. Furthermore, the incorporation of 0.1 and 0.5 wt % CNCs produced increases in the tensile modulus (E) of ca. 38% and 28%, respectively, but also yielded a reduction in the elongation at break and toughness. The oxygen barrier of the hybrid nanocomposite fiber-based films decreased with increasing the CNCs content, but they were seen to remain high barrier, especially in the low relative humidity (RH) regime, i.e., at 20% RH, showing permeability values lower than 0.6 × 10−20 m3·m·m−2·Pa−1·s−1. In general terms, an optimal balance in physical properties was found for the hybrid copolymer composite with a CNC loading of 0.1 wt %. On the overall, the present study demonstrates the potential of annealed electrospun fiber-based high-barrier polymers, with or without CNCs, to develop novel barrier interlayers to be used as food packaging constituents.

Impact and Tensile Properties of Polyester Nanocomposites Reinforced with Conifer Fiber Cellulose Nanocrystal: A Previous Study Extension.

In a recent paper, novel polyester nanocomposites reinforced with up to 3 wt% of cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) extracted from conifer fiber were characterized for their crystallinity index, water absorption, and flexural and thermal resistance. The use of this novel class of nanocomposites as a possible substitute for conventional glass fiber composites (fiberglass) was then suggested, especially for the 1 and 2 wt% CNC composites due to promising bending, density, and water absorption results. However, for effective engineering applications requiring impact and tensile performance, the corresponding properties need to be evaluated. Therefore, this extension of the previous work presents additional results on Izod and tensile tests of 1 and 2 wt% CNC-reinforced polyester composites, together with a comparative cost analysis with fiberglass. The chemical effect caused by incorporation of CNCs into polyester was also investigated by FTIR. In comparison to the neat polyester, the Izod impact energy increased 50% and 16% for the 1 and 2 wt% composites, respectively. On the other hand, the tensile strength and Young’s modulus remained constant within the ANOVA statistical analysis. FTIR analysis failed to reveal any chemical modification caused by up to 2 wt% CNC incorporation. The present impact and tensile results corroborate the promising substitution of a polyester composite reinforced with very low amount of CNCs for common fiberglass in engineering application.

Preparation, Characterization and Properties of Biodegradable Composites from Bamboo Fibers—Mechanical and Morphological Study

The realization for the conservation of environment, especially from the contaminations caused as a result of disposal of non-biodegradable waste, compelled researchers to search environment friendly materials as a substitute to these toxic materials. The present research work focuses on the effective usage of cellulose nanocrystals extracted from bamboo fibers as a reinforcement in PLA/PBS polymeric blend. Polymer blend composites were fabricated using the hot-pressing technique with varying cellulose nanocrystalline content. The morphological and mechanical properties of the composite samples were investigated; the results revealed that there was a positive effect of incorporation of cellulose nanocrystals (extracted from bamboo fibers) on the properties of the polymer matrix. The resultant biopolymer composite has one of its potential applications in food packaging where non-toxic and biodegradable materials are highly required.

Incorporation of Cellulose Nanocrystals into Graphene Oxide Membranes for Efficient Antibiotic Removal at High Nutrient Recovery

Two-dimensional (2D) material-based membranes hold great promise in wastewater treatment. However, it remains challenging to achieve highly efficient and precise small molecule/ion separation with pure 2D material-fabricated lamellar membranes. In this work, laminated graphene oxide (GO)-cellulose nanocrystal (CNC) hybrid membranes (GO/CNC) were fabricated by taking advantages of the unique structures and synergistic effects generated from these two materials. The characterization results in physiochemical properties, and the structure of the as-synthesized hybrid membranes displayed enhanced membrane surface hydrophilicity, enhanced crumpling surface structure, and slightly enlarged interlayer-spacing with the incorporation of CNCs. Water permeability increases by two to four times with the addition of different CNC weight ratios in comparison to a pristine GO membrane. The optimal GO/CNC membrane achieved efficient rejection toward three typical antibiotics at 74.8, 90.9, and 97.2% for sulfamethoxazole (SMX), levofloxacin (Levo), and norfloxacin (Nor), respectively, while allowing a high passage of desirable nutrients such as NO3- and H2PO4-. It was found that SMX removal is primarily governed by electrostatic repulsion, while adsorption plays a crucial role in removing Levo and Nor. Moreover, the density functional theory calculations confirmed the increased antibiotic removal in the presence of an organic foulant, humic acid. Such a 2D material-based hybrid membrane offers a new strategy to develop fit-for purpose membranes for resource recovery and water separation.

Modulating layer-by-layer assembled sodium alginate-chitosan film properties through incorporation of cellulose nanocrystals with different surface charge densities

In this work, 2,2,6,6-tetramethylpiperidine-1-oxyl-oxidized cellulose nanocrystals (TOCNs) were loaded into sodium alginate/chitosan multilayer film as nanofillers to investigate the modulation of the surface charge density of TOCNs on the film properties. First, the surface charge density of TOCNs was controlled by adjusting the carboxyl content and morphological size by varying the oxidant dosage. After oxidation, TOCN with higher surface charge density was observed to display a higher crystallinity, a more open internal structure, a better dispersibility and a slightly weaker thermal stability. In addition, a 15-layer film composed of sodium alginate and chitosan, called (SA/CH)15, was constructed by layer-by-layer assembly. Both in situ deposition monitoring and free-standing multilayer film formation indicated that TOCNs relied on strong electrostatic interactions and hydrogen bonding to achieve a compact and uniform interlayer and a thinner thickness of (SA/CH)15, which was more evident at a high surface charge density. The addition of TOCNs also enhanced the mechanical properties, thermal stability, hydrophobicity, and barrier properties of (SA/CH)15. In particular, the resulting sodium alginate/chitosan multilayer film exhibited an improved packaging performance when nanocomposite was performed using TOCN with a surface charge density of 3.22 ± 0.11 e nm−2.

Eucalyptus spp. cellulose nanocrystals obtained by acid hydrolysis and ultrasound processing for structural strengthening in paper packaging

The objective of the present study was to obtain and evaluate the conditions of acid hydrolysis for cellulose nanocrystals (CNC) production, as well as to characterize its chemical and morphological structure and finally to realize and evaluate its application potential on paper as a structural reinforcing agent. From bleached cellulose, CNC is obtained by the acid hydrolysis process at 35, 40 or 45 °C for 25, 30 and 35 min. Then, an ultrasonic disruptor was used to reduce the particle size of the samples. The average particle diameters ranged from 203.4 to 66.4 nm, with yields from 57.57% to 30.14%. To obtain the paper, the cellulose is homogenized by mechanical stirring and is incorporated with starch (5%) and CNC (6, 12 and 18%). This suspension was vacuum filtered and the papers formed are pressed in a hydraulic press (Carver®) for five minutes under 5000kgf. The addition of CNC showed to be a good option for increasing physical and mechanical properties as they improved the paper quality. Papers produced and incorporated with 12% and 18% CNC have superior characteristics in mechanical tensile testing (8.1 MPa) compared to paper without CNC added. Optical properties were not influenced after the incorporation of CNC .

Preparation of composites based in poly(3-hexylthiophene) and freeze-dried cellulose nanocrystals by a simple method, and their characterization

Poly(3-hexylthiophene) (P3HT)/cellulose nanocrystals (CNC) composites were prepared by a simple mixing method. The influence of the CNC incorporation on the properties of the composite was investigated. CNC were obtained from filter paper and purified by an acid hydrolysis process. P3HT was synthesized by direct oxidation of 3HT monomer using ferric chloride as oxidant. CNC were freeze-dried before mixing with P3HT. P3HT/CNC composites were prepared at different concentrations (P3HT/CNC weight ratio: 75/25, 50/50, 25/75, 5/95). P3HT, freeze-dried CNC and composites were characterized by FT-IR, TGA, UV–vis, XRD, cyclic voltammetry, and FE-SEM. Composites showed greater thermal stability than the freeze-dried CNC up to a 75 wt% CNC concentration. The increased ordering of P3HT chains in the composites was confirmed by XRD and UV–vis. Incorporating up to 50 wt% CNC in P3HT improved electrochemical stability. Charge storage in the composites increased with the P3HT content. P3HT/CNC composites exhibit interesting physicochemical properties that could be useful for optoelectronic device applications.

Aramid nanofiber reinforced nitrile rubber assisted by cellulose nanocrystals

AbstractA fiber‐reinforced rubber composite was prepared by mixing aramid nanofibers (ANF) suspension and nitrile rubber (NBR) latex. The effects of ANF content and corresponding surface modification on the microstructure, vulcanization performance, processing and mechanical properties of composite materials, were systematically investigated. We found that, compared with commonly used short‐cut aramid fibers, ANF fillers tend to form a stronger filling network within NBR matrix, resulting in a pronounced Payne effect. By improving the interfacial adhesion via dopamine (DA) coating onto ANF surface, the tensile strength can be further enhanced as expected. Besides, to eliminate the detriment of mechanical performance due to residual sodium polyacrylate in the course of flocculation, cellulose nanocrystal (CNC) was adopted to serve as a thickener during solution mixing. The incorporation of CNC can significantly improve the mechanical properties, which identifies a synergistic reinforcement effect arising from the cooperation of two types of fillers.

Cellulose nanocrystal effect on crystallization kinetics and biological properties of electrospun polycaprolactone

Mechanical properties of tissue engineering nanofibrous scaffolds are of importance because they not only determine their ease of application, but also influence the environment for cell growth and proliferation. Cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) are natural renewable nanoparticles that have been widely used for manipulating nanofibers' mechanical properties. In this article, cellulose nanoparticles were incorporated into poly(caprolactone) (PCL) solution, and composite nanofibers were produced. Ozawa-Flynn-Wall (OFW) methodology and X-ray diffraction were used to investigate the effect of CNC incorporation on PCL crystalline structure and its biological properties. Results showed that CNC incorporation up to 1% increases the crystallization activation energy and reduces the crystal volume, while these factors remain constant above this critical concentration. MTT assay and microscopic images of seeded cells on the nanofiber scaffolds indicated increased cell growth on the samples containing CNC. This behavior could be attributed to their greater hydrophilicity, which was confirmed using parallel exponential kinetics (PEK) model fitting to results obtained from dynamic vapor sorption (DVS) studies. Superior performance of CNC containing samples was also confirmed by in vivo implantation on full-thickness wounds. The wound area faded away more rapidly in these samples. H&E and Masson's trichrome staining showed better regeneration and more developed tissues in wounds treated with PCL-CNC1% nanofibers.

Evaluation of waste chicken feather protein hydrolysate as a bio-based binder for particleboard production

The present study investigate the beneficiation potential of extracted keratin protein hydrolysate from chicken feather waste biomass as bio-adhesive for the production of particleboard. Chicken feathers were hydrolyzed using hybrid alkaline hydrolysis, and the obtained keratin protein fraction was used for bio-adhesive formulation. The formulated adhesive was employed for particleboard fabrication using the American National Standards Institute (A208.1) 1-L-1 grade specification. The quality of bio-adhesive and the particleboard mechanical strength performance were evaluated with Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), modulus of rupture (MOR), modulus of elasticity (MOE) and density. The FTIR spectra confirmed the amine, alkyl side chains and carboxylic groups of the amino acids in the unmodified keratin-based binder. The spectra revealed the covalent bonding between the azetidinium of the citric acid-based polyamide-epichlorohydrin cross-linking and the hydroxyl groups of the keratin protein hydrolysate. The fabricated particleboard's mechanical strength performance met the specification for the 1-L-1 grade of the American National Standards Institute (A208.1). The respective values obtained for modulus of rupture and modulus of elasticity of the panels made with unmodified keratin-based adhesive were 6, 5 and 1184, 34 ​MPa, respectively. The cellulose nanocrystals incorporation as a filler enhanced the formulated bio-adhesive static bending and bonding strength properties. Therefore, these findings demonstrate that keratin hydrolysate protein extracts from chicken feather waste could be considered as a potential feedstock for environmentally friendly wood composites bio-binder production.

Chitosan/nanocellulose electrospun fibers with enhanced antibacterial and antifungal activity for wound dressing applications

The combination of biodegradable fibers at nanoscale with plant-based extracts is attracting increasing attention to produce wound dressing systems. In this work, nanofibers based on chitosan (CS), poly(ethylene oxide) (PEO), cellulose nanocrystals (CNC) and acacia plant-based extract were developed by electrospinning. Firstly, the polymeric formulations and electrospinning parameters were optimized, resulting in nanofibers with average diameters of 80 nm. CNC were successfully introduced into the optimized CS/PEO blend and the membranes were characterized by FESEM, ATR-FTIR, TGA, XRD, WVTR and WCA. The CNC incorporation improved the nanofibers' physical integrity, morphology, diameters, water vapor transmission rate and thermal properties. After acacia introduction into the best CS/PEO/CNC system, the antibacterial effect was relatively maintained while the antifungal activity was enhanced for some fungi, demonstrating its great effect against a wide range of microorganisms, which is crucial to prevent or treat infections. All the developed systems exhibited absence of cytotoxicity in non-tumor cells, suggesting their biocompatibility. Finally, a continuous release of the acacia extract was observed for 24 h, showing its prolonged action, which contributes to the healing process while reduces the frequency of dressing's replacement. Overall, the developed nanofibers are very promising to act as localized drug delivery systems for wound care applications.

Strategies to Improve the Properties of Amaranth Protein Isolate-Based Thin Films for Food Packaging Applications: Nano-Layering through Spin-Coating and Incorporation of Cellulose Nanocrystals.

In this work, two different strategies for the development of amaranth protein isolate (API)-based films were evaluated. In the first strategy, ultrathin films were produced through spin-coating nanolayering, and the effects of protein concentration in the spin coating solution, rotational speed, and number of layers deposited on the properties of the films were evaluated. In the second strategy, cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) were incorporated through a casting methodology. The morphology, optical properties, and moisture affinity of the films (water contact angle, solubility, water content) were characterized. Both strategies resulted in homogeneous films with good optical properties, decreased hydrophilic character (as deduced from the contact angle measurements and solubility), and improved mechanical properties when compared with the neat API-films. However, both the processing method and film thickness influenced the final properties of the films, being the ones processed through spin coating more transparent, less hydrophilic, and less water-soluble. Incorporation of CNCs above 10% increased hydrophobicity, decreasing the water solubility of the API films and significantly enhancing material toughness.

Taming the Photonic Behavior of Laser Dyes Through Specific and Dynamic Self‐Assembly onto Cellulose Nanocrystals

Cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) display a set of unique properties such as surface charge, nanometric size, and giant dipole moment that have not been considered so far to tame the luminescent properties of organic dyes upon soft and hard photoexcitation. Herein, the first comprehensive analysis on the photonic behavior of laser dyes adsorbed onto CNCs through physically dynamic driving forces is reported. By systematically varying the solvent, the dye molecular structure, and dye/CNC ratios, it is shown that the dye absorption and emission signatures are drastically modified when CNCs are incorporated into the solutions. The photonic characterization, together with molecular dynamic simulations, allows to unravel the labeling interaction processes and unambiguously assigns both the physicochemical properties of the surrounding media and the giant permanent dipole moment of CNCs as the most important factors taming the photophysical and lasing properties of dyes adsorbed on it. Accordingly, a CNC‐induced Stark effect accounts for the absorption and emission spectral changes recorded upon CNC incorporation. Herein, the widely expanding applications of CNCs toward the design of advanced photoactive nanomaterials based on these renewable building blocks are opened up.

Synergistic Reinforcement of Composite Hydrogels with Nanofiber Mixtures of Cellulose Nanocrystals and Chitin Nanofibers

Simultaneous incorporation of cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) and chitin nanofibers (ChNFs) into a polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) matrix opens possibilities for customization of more environmentally friendly composite materials. When used in tricomponent composite hydrogels, the opposite surface charges on CNCs and ChNFs lead to the construction of beneficial nanofiber structures. In this work, composite hydrogels containing CNCs, ChNFs, or their mixtures are produced using cyclic freeze-thaw (FT) treatments. When considering different compositions and FT cycling, tricomponent composite hydrogels containing a specific ratio of CNCs/ChNFs are shown to have promising mechanical performance in comparison to other samples. These results together with results from water absorption, rheological, and light scattering studies suggest that the CNC/ChNF structures produced property improvement by concurrently accessing the stronger interfacial interactions between CNCs and PVA and the longer lengths of the ChNFs for load transfer. Overall, these results provide insight into using electrostatically driven nanofiber structures in nanocomposites.

Thermal and rheological properties of fully biodegradable Poly(ethylene succinate)/Cellulose nanocrystals composites

The effect of low contents of cellulose nanocrystals (CNC) on the thermal and rheological properties of poly(ethylene succinate) (PES) was studied in this work in their fully biodegradable composites. Regardless of CNC content, the incorporation of CNC slightly improved the thermal stability and obviously enhanced the melt crystallization as an efficient heterogeneous nucleating agent as well as the complex viscosity, storage modulus, and loss modulus of PES as a rigid reinforcing nanofiller in the composites; however, the crystal structures of PES/CNC composites were not modified. The rheological behavior study indirectly revealed the content dependence of the dispersion of CNC in PES matrix, i.e., fine dispersion at low CNC contents of 0.5 wt% and below and aggregation at 1 wt% of CNC. Depending on CNC content, the external surfaces available for the nucleation of PES crystals were different due to the different dispersion states of CNC in polymer matrix. The morphology study confirmed that the melt crystallization of PES was apparently affected by the content and dispersion of CNC in the composites.