Implementation Of Agricultural Policy Research Articles

Subsistence farmers’ access to agricultural credit and its adequacy

PurposeThe Government of Pakistan has allocated a substantial proportion of agricultural credit to subsistence farmers. The purpose of this paper is to analyze farmers’ access to credit and its adequacy in the light of current agricultural credit policy of Pakistan.Design/methodology/approachThe study has used both secondary and primary data for analysis. Secondary data were collected from the annual reports of Pakistan Economic Survey and State Bank of Pakistan. Primary data were collected from 168 subsistence farmers through households’ survey. Farmers’ credit access and credit adequacy were measured using credit access ratio and credit adequacy ratio, respectively. The Student’s t-test and analysis of variance were used to assess the differences in credit access and adequacy among farmers’ groups (i.e. upper, medium and lower subsistence farmers). Tobit regression model was employed to determine the factors influencing credit adequacy among farmers.FindingsThe empirical results revealed that the amount of credit provided to subsistence farmers was less than stated in the national agricultural credit policy. Upper subsistence farmers had more access to credit than lower and medium subsistence farmers. Lower subsistence farmers had above average access to informal sources of credit, and had below average access to formal sources. The findings also revealed that lower subsistence and medium subsistence farmers had the highest credit inadequacy of funds for investment in agriculture. The results of the Tobit regression revealed that age, education, experience, household size, total landholding of farmer and proportion of own land influenced the agricultural credit adequacy.Practical implicationsMost of the credit was distributed among the upper subsistence farmers. Lower subsistence farmers were still largely dependent on informal credit for farm production activities. The Government of Pakistan performed poor in the implementation of agricultural credit policy, and has failed to help subsistence farmers in their access to formal credit. It is needed to revamp the agricultural credit policy and facilitate credit acquisition by subsistence farmers, particularly for tenant farmers. It is important that the Government may classify the subsistence farmers into subgroups, and reallocate the funds accordingly. This study has lessons and implications for agricultural finance initiatives in developing countries.Originality/valuePrevious studies have focused primarily on access to agricultural credit. However, this study has adopted a holistic approach by using secondary and primary data to assess the farmers’ access to credit and adequacy. In addition, limited literature is available to explore the farmers’ accessibility and adequacy of agricultural credit. Furthermore, this study has focused exclusively on the farmers who are living in the flood-prone areas of Pakistan.

Re-election incentives and deforestation cycles in the Brazilian Amazon

Despite expansive research on Amazonian deforestation and its drivers, the role of local politics is not well understood. Using a panel data set that combines municipal-level deforestation and election data from 2002 to 2012, I estimate the effect of an incumbent mayor running for re-election on deforestation rates in election periods. I find that deforestation rates increase 8–10% in election years when an incumbent mayor runs for re-election, an amount equivalent to four percent of the total forest lost since the 2004 elections. Electoral deforestation cycles do not appear to be driven by changes in agricultural policy implementation and activity, but are linked to corruption and campaign finance, suggesting that weak institutional constraints facilitate electoral manipulation of forest resources. This phenomenon is not likely limited to Amazonian forests; re-election incentives could very well lead to misallocation of other natural resources in alternate geographies.

Zadania Agencji Rynku Rolnego w zakresie realizacji nowej Wspólnej Polityki Rolnej na lata 2014–2020

Zadania Agencji Rynku Rolnego w zakresie realizacji nowej Wspólnej Polityki Rolnej na lata 2014–2020

Organic and conventional agriculture in Kenya: A typology of smallholder farms in Kajiado and Murang'a counties

Understanding the diversity of smallholder farms is key for the development of interventions, strategies and policies aimed at addressing the numerous challenges these farmers face as well as for those shaping the future of smallholder farming in Kenya, Africa and beyond. In this study, we developed a typology for smallholder farms in Kenya using survey data from 488 farm households in Kajiado and Murang'a counties. Multivariate statistical techniques (principal component and cluster analyses) were used to group farms into five types differentiated by household characteristics, resource endowment, cropping practices, social networks, access to information, dietary diversity and gender equity. Types 2, 3 and 5 were mostly market oriented, possessed high to medium levels of wealth and had strong social networks. Types 3 and 5, however, mainly practised organic agriculture while Type 2 farms included organic and non-organic cultivated areas. Types 1 and 4 were characterised by low to medium levels of wealth, maintained poor social networks and had low adherence to organic agriculture practices. Yet, while Type 4 farms mainly practised conventional market-oriented agriculture, farms of Type 1 could be defined as organic-by-default and were self-subsistent. The majority of the surveyed farms belonged to Type 2, the wealthiest group of farmers and mostly located in Kajiado county. Murang'a county was dominated by farms of Type 5 practising mainly certified organic agriculture. Overall, the practice of organic agriculture was associated with higher agricultural income, legal ownership of land, older household heads, larger household sizes, stronger social networks, higher access to information, more diverse diets and higher levels of gender equity. In contrast, poorer, younger and less well-connected farmers were less involved in organic agriculture. The results of this study may help to increase efficiency in the implementation of pro-poor and organic agricultural interventions, strategies and policies on the ground and to shape policy instruments accordingly.

Socio-economic and environmental sustainability of Bulgarian farms

Evaluation of sustainability of agricultural farms is among the most topical academic and practical – farm, business and policies forwarded issues. Despite that there are practically no studies on overall, economic, social, ecological, etc. sustainability of Bulgaria farms during European Union (EU) Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) implementation. This article tries to fill the gap and presents results of a first large-scale study on integral, governance, economic, social, and environmental sustainability of market oriented farms in Bulgaria in general and for holdings of different juridical type, size, specialization and location. Initially, a holistic framework for assessing sustainability of Bulgarian farms is outlined, including a system of appropriate for the specific conditions of Bulgarian agriculture system of principles, criteria, indicators, and reference values for evaluating individual aspects and the integral sustainability of farming enterprises. Next, an assessment of made of the overall, governance, economic, social, and environmental sustainability of Bulgarian farms in general and holdings of different juridical type, size, specialization, ecological and geographical location. Finally, implications for further research and practices in sustainability assessment are withdrawn.

Governance, Economic, Social and Environmental Sustainability of Farming Enterprises of Different Juridical Type in Bulgaria

The issue of assessment of absolute and comparative sustainability of major farming structures is among the most topical for researchers, farmers, investors, administrators, politicians, interests groups and public at large. Despite that practically there are no assessments on sustainability level of Bulgarian farms of different juridical type in conditions of European Union Common Agricultural Policy implementation. This article applies a holistic framework and assesses absolute and comparative sustainability of Bulgarian farming enterprises of different juridical type. Initially the method of the study is outlined, and overall characteristics of surveyed holdings presented. After that an assessment is made of integral, governance, economic, social, environmental sustainability of farming structures of different juridical type. Next, structure of farms with different sustainability levels is analyzed. Finally, conclusion from the study and directions for further research and amelioration of sustainability assessments suggested.

Sustainability of Governing Structures in Bulgarian Farming Industry

The issue of assessment of absolute and comparative sustainability of major governing structures in agrarian and farming industries is among the most topical issues for researchers, farmers, investors, administrators, politicians, interests groups, and the public worldwide. Despite this issue, practically there are no assessments on the sustainability level of the major types of Bulgarian farming enterprises in the conditions of European Union Common Agricultural Policy implementation. This study applies a holistic framework and assesses the absolute and comparative sustainability of major governing structures in Bulgarian farming industry�unregistered holdings, sole traders, cooperatives, and companies of various types. In this paper, the method of the study is outlined, the inclusion of a novel “governance aspect” of sustainability is justified, and the overall characteristics of the surveyed farming enterprises are presented. Then, the integral, governance, economic, social, and environmental sustainability of the farming structures of different juridical types is assessed. Next, the structure of farming enterprises with different sustainability levels is analyzed. Finally, the conclusion from this study and the directions for further research and amelioration of sustainability assessments are presented.

亂世哀音———程兆熊及其《春秋講義》

LANGUAGE NOTE | Document text in Chinese; abstract also in English.
 本文略述程兆熊其人其學，及其《春秋講義》之主旨。以爲程氏深悉中國歷代土地政策對型塑中國文化具關鍵影響力，故其討論中國文化，頗能從土地開發與心靈開發相對應的關係上進行論述，以爲歷代農政之實施，同時包含了王道教化之精神在内。而此一王道教化之精神，即是儒家的性情之教。程先生《春秋講義》講述的内容，亦不外是對此儒家性情之教的贊揚與維護。是書所揭護持人道大防、讚揚禮義之行、堅守民族（文化）大義諸論，振聾發聵，令人耳目一新。而後知不論就學術史的角度，或者就當代新儒家的研究視野而言，程兆熊都不應該是被忽視埋没的學者。尤其當風雨飄零之際，若研究傳統學問之人，其視野仍僅在考訂字句之是非、版本之訛錯，而無視於天下家國之危，則經學之運晦而難明，亦自身之失誤有以招之。觀20世紀下葉，新儒家於海外之聲勢，對照經學傳統之落寞，得無慨乎！
 This paper outlines the life of Cheng Zhaoxiong, his studies and the main idea of his work Chun Qiu Jiang Yi. It argues that under the awareness of the key influences of land policies to shaping Chinese ancient culture, Cheng’s discussion of Chinese culture noticed the corresponding relations between land developments and mind developments, thus, he hold that the implementation of agricultural policies contains a kind of kingcraft spirit for enlightening the public. This spirit was the so-called temperament educating of Confucianism, which was also the main content and fully praised in his book of Chun Qiu Jiang Yi. In this book, Cheng showed his proposition of supporting humanistic principles, praising proper and justice behaviors and adhering to national (cultural)spirits. So, whether from the angle of academic history or the Neo-Confucianism research, Cheng Zhaoxiong should not be overlooked. In troubled times, if scholars’ researches still focused on textual researches such as correcting wrong words and editions, instead of concerning the crisis of his own country, the decline of Confucian classics studies can only put its blame to the scholars themselves. Compared with the influential development of the Neo-Confucianism in the twentieth century overseas, the loneliness of traditional Confucianism really makes people sign with emotion.

Do the passerine traits’ dynamic patterns indicate the ecological status of agro-forestry ecosystems? A modelling approach for “Montado” management assessments

ContextThe “Montado”, a human shaped oak agro-forestry dominated landscape of South Western Europe has been experiencing series of changes following the implementation of different agricultural policies. Such changes are responsible for shifting the structure and composition of “Montado” landscape and hence the biodiversity of the system, either by agriculture abandonment or intensification. Traditional oak agro-forestry management practices, which focused on improving the ecological status of a single and common land use (oak agro-forestry), is taken as a conservation paradigm against the perceived changes in the system. AimsWe aimed to identify the effect of oak agro-forestry management on “Montado” biodiversity as indicator for ecological status of “Montado” landscape. MethodsA recently developed spatially explicit Stochastic Dynamic Methodology (StDM) was applied to model the spatial and temporal patterns of the land use/land cover changes and predict responses in biodiversity patterns, with a focus on passerine functional traits (grassland, woodland and generalist species richness), considering scenarios with and without oak agro-forestry management. ResultsModel outputs showed that oak agro-forestry management favored the expansion of oak agro-forestry at the expense of other land uses, mainly oak forest and agricultural areas. On the other hand, passerine richness exhibits a gradual decline facing the intensification of oak agro-forestry management practices, with higher declining rate observed for grassland passerine species. ConclusionThe oak agro-forestry management does not seem to improve the ecological status of “Montado” landscape, and neither does its abandonment. Hence the conservation paradigm should focus on improving the multi-functionality of the system than merely focusing on a single and common land use

Farmers' Preferences for Future Agricultural Land Use Under the Consideration of Climate Change.

Cultural landscapes in Austria are multifunctional through their simultaneous support of productive, habitat, regulatory, social, and economic functions. This study investigates, if changing climatic conditions in Austria will lead to landscape change. Based on the assumption that farmers are the crucial decision makers when it comes to the implementation of agricultural climate change policies, this study analyzes farmers’ decision-making under the consideration of potential future climate change scenarios and risk, varying economic conditions, and different policy regimes through a discrete choice experiment. Results show that if a warming climate will offer new opportunities to increase income, either through expansion of cash crop cultivation or new land use options such as short-term rotation forestry, these opportunities will almost always be seized. Even if high environmental premiums were offered to maintain current cultural landscapes, only 43 % of farmers would prefer the existing grassland cultivation. Therefore, the continuity of characteristic Austrian landscape patterns seems unlikely. In conclusion, despite governmental regulations of and incentives for agriculture, climate change will have significant effects on traditional landscapes. Any opportunities for crop intensification will be embraced, which will ultimately impact ecosystem services, tourism opportunities, and biodiversity.

Public health policy in a time of change and disaster in South Africa: 1910-1920.

With the establishment of the Union of South Africa in 1910, the central focus of the newly appointed government was to alter and consolidate the policies of the pre-Union colonies that differed materially in many respects and to substitute them with uniform policies that had to be implemented as a consolidated whole for the Union. This central focus was applied to a number of policies, notably those for the black people, immigration, education, labour, national defence and the development and implementation of railway, mining and agricultural policies. However, an omission occurred with regard to the consideration of a comprehensive public health policy by the political parties and the Union Parliament, consisting of white people only. This article examines this omission during the first 10 years of the Union of South Africa (1910–1920), during the three 5-yearly general elections (on 15 September 1910, 20 October 1915 and 10 March 1920), and argues that this lack of consideration of a comprehensive public health policy can be found in the theory of party political responsible government during unification, which was further developed by Kavanagh, that party political manifestos act as the guiding force behind the policy matters that are discussed and decided upon in Parliament. The article confirms that the reason for not establishing a comprehensive public health policy prior to the outbreak of the influenza epidemic in 1918 was the incidental and piecemeal fashion in which expressions on public health appeared in the published party political manifestos, which in turn influenced the proceedings of Parliament. This political negligence was, however, quickly overturned by Parliament immediately after the epidemic, showing the influence of this demographic disaster on political thinking and action.

Perception of Kogi State University Agricultural Students on Farming as a Career

This study examined the perception of Kogi State University Agricultural Students on farming as a career. Primary data were collected using structured interview schedule to pick 150 students in the study area. Stratified random sampling technique was used to pick 30 students from each level (100-500). Data collected were analyzed using descriptive statistics such as frequency count, percentage and mean score on a 3 point likert-type of scale. The result of the study indicated that a large percentage (42.7%) of students were from household size of 4 to 6 which is fairly large for the needed labour force for agricultural activities. Many (56%) of the students had no farming experience before their enrolment into the university. The study further showed that most of the students had negative attitude when they resumed in 100 level mean score (X) (2.30) but are now greatly influenced by agricultural education impacted by trained agricultural experts (X) (2.67). Students Industrial Work Experience Scheme (SIWES) programme had also positively changed the students attitude to farming (2.25). Most respondents (X) (2.58) 86% showed willingness to engage in practical agricultural enterprise if supplied with the necessary agricultural inputs. Also willingness to embark on poultry farming had (X) (2.73), fish farming had ms (2.49), cash crop farming had (X) (2.19) and arable crop farming had (X) (2.12) which represented a popular perception among the respondents. Piggery farming with (X) (1.47) and beekeeping with (X) (1.33) had the least indication of interest by the students. Implementation of government agricultural policies that will ensure regular input and attractive market price could motivate agricultural graduates to embrace farming as a career.

Impact of Government Agricultural Policies on Major Staple Food Prices in Nigeria (1966 - 2011)

This study assessed the impact of government agricultural policies on the prices of major staple food in Nigeria. It described the trend of the major staple food prices and determined the effect of government agricultural policies on the major staple food prices in Nigeria. Secondary data were sourced from various organizations and used for this study. These data were transformed from their nominal value to real value and analyzed using descriptive statistics, unit root test, ordinary least square model, cochrane-orcutt, least absolute deviation estimators and simultaneous equation model. The study revealed that the prices of most of the major staple foods were at the peak value between 1991 and 1993 while their prices were at the lowest value between 1978 and 1983. The study observed that the price of cowpea is most volatile seconded by maize. The study further established that the prices of staple foods were inter-related. Also, it was showed that agricultural credit guarantee scheme funds (ACGSF), agricultural policies during structural adjustment period (SAP) and post-structural adjustment period (PSAP) were statistically significant while the agricultural input subsidy scheme was statistically insignificant. The study recommended painstaking formulation and implementation of agricultural policies and re-structuring of agricultural of input scheme.

Observed and predicted changes in soil carbon stocks under export and diversified agriculture in the Caribbean. The case study of Guadeloupe

Export agriculture in the Caribbean is often blamed for pollution of soils and water resources. At the same time, the reduction of preferences in the international markets for major agricultural exports from the Caribbean induced a partial reorientation of the agriculture towards the local markets, which included crop diversification. This study was carried out to assess the sustainability of that agricultural switch with respect to maintaining, increasing or decreasing soil organic carbon (SOC) stocks. We analysed the impact of export crops (sugarcane and banana monocultures) and diversified agriculture (as monoculture or in rotation with export crops) on SOC stocks using the case study of Guadeloupe (Lesser Antilles). Agriculture in Guadeloupe involves a mosaic of soils, climates, crops and farming practices, which well represent the tropical conditions of export and diversified agriculture in the region. The study was based on: (i) a soil database including information on the SOC stocks of numerous cropping system—agro-ecological region (AER) situations, (ii) a survey of farming practices performed on a network of 382 farmers (e.g. crop rotations and yields, management of residues and organic amendments), and (iii) the development of a simple model of annual C inputs and outputs to assess SOC dynamics at the AER scale. The model was calibrated and evaluated using 253 plots and included 827 SOC measurements selected from the soil database. The model produced satisfactory estimates of changes in SOC stocks and provided an explanation for differences between cropping systems and AERs in terms of the C inputs and outputs. While sugarcane and banana monocultures were able to preserve or increase SOC, diversification was likely to reduce it. These differences were due to higher C inputs from crop residues together with lower C outputs for export agriculture. Lower SOC outputs by mineralization were mainly associated with the longer cycle of these pluriannual crops (5yr), which decreased the impact of soil tillage at planting. Banana monoculture in the most humid AERs was the only cropping system that displayed a clear pattern of C sequestration (+0.5MgCha−1yr−1). The highest SOC losses were observed with vegetable crops in the same AERs (e.g. −2.0MgCha−1yr−1). Calculations made using the model indicated that the sustainability of diversified agriculture in the Caribbean might be reinforced by adopting reduced soil tillage, organic amendments and the liming of the more acid soils to increase yields and crop residues. The results of this study suggest that the implementation of new agricultural policies to reduce the negative environmental impacts of export crops should involve measures to preserve their positive effect on SOC storage.

The agri-environmental footprint: A method for the identification and classification of peri-urban areas

The aim of this research is to define and test a methodology for an articulated and systematic analysis of the countryside, which can lend support to urban and landscape planning processes in addition to improving knowledge of the landscape, and for the implementation of agricultural and rural development policies. We have conceived a multi-criteria and multilevel methodology that was integrated into a geographic information system (GIS) and is based on clustering and maximum likelihood classification algorithms. The proposed method focuses on various agri-environmental and socio-economic components, whose synthesis is performed by means of an interpretative key that was developed by the authors, the “Agri-Environmental Footprint”, to quantify the impact of rural areas on urban systems. In particular, this paper presents the general framework of the methodology, a set of indexes that are defined for its first-level analyses, and the results of their implementation through a case study in the Emilia-Romagna Region (Italy). The method is based on the IsoCluster technique, which is associated with statistical analyses of criteria, such as the Principal Component Analysis and different data standardisation algorithms (min–max and z-score). The case study has allowed an iterative calibration of both the methodological framework and indexes.

Search for new approaches to farming in the Ukrainian SSR in the period of "developed socialism"

National scientists have elaborated the reform's gist, approaches, stages and consequences in the Ukrainian agricultural sector during the XX - XXI centuries. These studies have been conducted by N. Zhulkanych, S. Zhyvora, M. Zyza, M. Lendiel, E. Mazur, O. Malyarchuk, V. Nechytailo and many others. The paper aims to perform the comprehensive study of general trends and peculiar features of the agricultural development of the Ukrainian SSR in 1963-1990 and to define actual advances and drawbacks on the basis of analysis of historical records and scientific literature. The object of research is agriculture as part of socialist economy in the USSR. The subject of research is the implementation features of agricultural policy of the Soviet power in the Ukrainian SSR, using the Western region of the Republic as an example. The economic strategy of the Soviet power involved a long-term industrialization of the agricultural sector. A distinguishing feature of the industrialization process was the use of systems of machinery in all branches of agriculture. The technological chain had to embrace the process from the sporadic application of machinery to the overall mechanization and automation of crop and livestock farming. The industrial background of production predetermined the implementation of the system of machinery with extensive power consumption, i.e. with the new technical bases. The resolutions of the March (1965) Plenum of the CPSU Central Committee defined the economic priorities and capacity development of the Republic. Capital investments were the economic basis for the increase of production potential of collective and state farms, solution of social problems in rural regions. The land productivity was increased mainly by means of land reclamation and production chemization, use of organic and mineral fertilizers, pesticides, fungicides, etc. The supply of mineral fertilizers increased, but most of them were of low quality, non-concentrated and unbalanced in nutritional ingredients. In its turn it caused irreparable damage to the environment and polluted agricultural products with chemicals. The chemization undermined the population health and disrupted the ecological balance. Despite ultimate achievements in the rise of the industrial level of agriculture of the Ukrainian SSR, it didn't meet the needs of collective and state farms. A great number of labour-intensive processes in animal and crop farming were performed manually. In state farms, contrary to collective farms, the stock of tractors was newer, but much smaller. For many years the USSR was in the top ten countries of the world in terms of consumption of energy and proteins, contained in products per capita. However, the patterns were inconsistent with the scientifically grounded norm. Structural imbalance of the ration was the manifestation of the crisis in the USSR. To meet primary needs of Soviet citizens in products the May (1982) Plenum of the CPSU Central Committee adopted the Program of the USSR for the Period until 1990 and Measures of Its Implementation. The main issue of the Food program was to increase grain harvest. Grain production was the basis for and fodder supply of the country. Alongside with a substantial increase in products output in public economy the attention was given to the development of subsidiary individual holdings and fruit-and-vegetable cooperatives. The cooperatives and subsidiary holdings produced a great number of dairy and meat products, vegetables and fruits both for their own needs and for sale in collective farm markets. The state program predetermined the solution of agricultural problems by means of formerly used methods. The major problem of agriculture had to be solved by means of increase in the gross grain harvest. Thus, the implementation of agricultural policy of Soviet power in the Ukrainian SSR lead to great changes in agricultural production. At that time there appeared such new branches of economy specialized in services to agricultural production as waterworks and land reclamation, feed mill industry, farm building, machine engineering for animal farming and fodder production, procurement of agricultural products and agricultural processing. The study of this policy implementation proves that the average annual rates of agricultural production increased but they were inconsistent with high investments. On the one hand, the Food program testified the food crisis in the USSR, demonstrating the lag of the world socialist community from capitalist states. On the other hand, it had to increase the level of self-sufficiency, decrease the procurement of agricultural products from abroad and promote the solution of the world problem in general.

THE MAIN INSTRUMENTS OF THE AGRARIAN POLICY IMPLEMENTATION

The article examines the main factors that determine the choice of instruments in the process of the agricultural policy implementation. It is noted the increased demand for certain research concepts to optimize and improve policy-making in the agricultural sector. It is accented that the agricultural sector of Ukraine's economy is the backbone of the national economy, which forms the factors for the preservation of state sovereignty, food and economic, environmental, and energy security, ensures the development of technologically related sectors of the national economy, creates a market for agricultural products and foodstuffs.

Can fuzzy cognitive mapping help in agricultural policy design and communication?

Agricultural environmental regulation often fails to deliver the desired effects because of farmers adopting the related measures incorrectly or not at all. This is due to several barriers to the uptake of the prescribed environmentally beneficial farm management practices, most of which have been well established by social science research. Yet it is unclear why these barriers remain so difficult to overcome despite numerous and persistent attempts at the design, communication and enforcement of related agricultural policies. This paper examines the potential of fuzzy cognitive mapping (FCM) as a tool to disentangle the underlying reasons of this persistent problem. We present the FCM methodology as adapted to the application in a Scottish case study on how environmental regulation affects farmers and farming practice and what factors are important for compliance or non-compliance with this regulation. The study compares the views of two different stakeholder groups on this matter using FCM network visualizations that were validated by interviews and a workshop session. There was a farmers group representing a typical mix of Scottish farming systems and a non-farmers group, the latter comprising professionals from the fields of design, implementation, administration, consulting on and enforcement of agricultural policies. Between the two groups, the FCM process reveals a very different perception of importance and interaction of factors and strongly suggests that the problem lies in an institutional failure rather than in a simple unwillingness of farmers to obey the rules. FCM allows for a structured process of identifying areas of conflicting perceptions, but also areas where strongly differing groups of stakeholders might be able to gain common ground. In this way, FCM can help to identify anchoring points for targeted policy development and has the potential of becoming a useful tool in agricultural policy design and communication. Our results show the utility of FCM by pointing out how Scottish environmental regulation could be altered to increase compliance with the rules and where the reasons for the identified institutional failure might be sought.

Information, motivation and resources: the missing elements in agricultural pesticide policy implementation in Ethiopia

To promote pesticide governance that protects the environment and human health, Ethiopia has developed a legal framework for pesticide registration and control. However, in Ethiopia, pesticides are still registered, traded and used inappropriately. This research analyses how Ethiopia's pesticide policy is implemented and identifies the barriers for an effective implementation of this policy. With a theoretical framework based on the information, motivations and resources of relevant actors, data are collected from state pesticide experts, traders and end users (farmers) through in-depth interviews. The overall result reveals that major gaps exist between pesticides policy on paper and its implementation in practice. The key policy actors scored low on each of the three characteristics: they have poor information available, have low motivation to implement policies and lack sufficient resources. Involvement of and collaboration with private actors is likely to improve the implementation of pesticide governance, and contribute to sustainability in agricultural and food systems in Ethiopia.

Institutional reforms and agricultural policy process: lessons from Democratic Republic of Congo

Attaining food security for all requires well-functioning institutions and policy process that are effective in designing and implementing food and agricultural policies and programs. This paper assesses early stages of the decentralization and institutional reforms in the policymaking processes in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC). It develops a conceptual framework and adopts an innovative mapping tool to identify capacity and incentive challenges impeding the effective design and implementation of food and agricultural policy and institutional reform processes. We found that decentralized platforms for policy dialogues have the potential to improve civil society participation in local-level and national-level policy and planning processes. However, their success depends on organizational and human capacity strengthening, financial sustainability, effective participation of the civil society, and demonstrated impact of their participation.JEL ClassificationD72; D74; D78; Q18