Imbrasia Belina Research Articles

DNA barcoding reveals incorrect labelling of insects sold as food in the UK.

BackgroundInsects form an established part of the diet in many parts of the world and insect food products are emerging into the European and North American marketplaces. Consumer confidence in product is key in developing this market, and accurate labelling of content identity is an important component of this. We used DNA barcoding to assess the accuracy of insect food products sold in the UK.MethodsWe purchased insects sold for human consumption from online retailers in the UK and compared the identity of the material ascertained from DNA barcoding to that stated on the product packaging. To this end, the COI sequence of mitochondrial DNA was amplified and sequenced, and compared the sequences produced to reference sequences in NCBI and the Barcode of Life Data System (BOLD).ResultsThe barcode identity of all insects that were farmed was consistent with the packaging label. In contrast, disparity between barcode identity and package contents was revealed in two cases of foraged material (mopane worm and winged termites). One case of very broad family-level description was also highlighted, where material described as grasshopper was identified as Locusta migratoria from DNA barcode.ConclusionOverall these data indicate the need to establish tight protocols to validate product identity in this developing market. Maintaining biosafety and consumer confidence rely on accurate and consistent product labelling that provides a clear chain of information from producer to consumer.

It's Not Just About the Worm: Social and Economic Impacts of Harvesting Imbrasia Belina larvae (Kruger National Park, South Africa)

A mopane worm (Imbrasia belina) harvesting project in the Kruger National Park (KNP) was used as a case study to test whether conservation related benefit sharing has a net positive impact on multiple dimensions of human well-being. Furthermore, the study assessed whether and to what degree, sharing such benefits influenced local perceptions of conservation, a requirement for the sustainability of protected areas across the globe. The project involved 263 people from 16 villages, adjacent to the KNP, harvesting 4,688 L worms contributing the equivalent of over half of the average household income during the months of harvest. Despite paying for transport, the participants gained from the experience; instilling the feeling that the park is opening up to them, and as a result seeing the park differently. For most participants the project provided them their first opportunity to visit the park, and participants perceived this to have further contributed positively to their wellbeing as a result of the associated learning experiences. Furthermore, participants enjoyed meeting and getting to know the park staff, with these new social connections contributing positively to social wellbeing. Respondents perceived their relationship with the park to be positive and expressed hope for building on this in the future. We conclude that measuring the multiple dimensions of human wellbeing in impact assessments is beneficial, and that the social connections that are built between neighbours, protected area staff and the natural and cultural resources within protected areas as a result of such projects can have mutually beneficial outcomes both for people and conservation.

Mitochondrial genomes and polymorphic regions of Gonimbrasia belina and Gynanisa maja (Lepidoptera: Saturniidae), two important edible caterpillars of Southern Africa

Mopane worms are the vernacular designation for the edible caterpillars of the African emperor moths Gonimbrasia belina and Gynanisa maja. Both species, particularly G. belina, are widely harvested in Southern Africa, and their populations are declining. Despite their commercial, nutritional, and cultural importance, their genetic data are currently unavailable. We sequenced two complete mitogenomes from each species using Ion Torrent technology, and identified informative markers in the complete mitogenomes of the two species for use in future studies. Comparing the conspecific mitogenomes allowed the identification of regions with high nucleotide diversity in ATP6, ND1, ND4, ND5, ND6, and CYTB genes. The final panels of markers will allow for the survey of 3117 bp in G. belina, and 3990 bp in Gy. maja. Phylogenetic reconstruction within the family Saturniidae recovered the tribe Bunaeini as monophyletic and basal to Saturniidae, and the tribe Attacini as a monophyletic clade nested within the tribe Saturniini. The G. belina and Gy. maja mitogenomes are the first representatives of African Saturniidae, a taxonomic group with relevance as a food resource on the continent. This study represents the first step towards assessing the genetic diversity, population structure, and phylogeography of African edible caterpillars.

The potential of <i>Imbrasia belina</i> worm as a poultry and fish feed. A review

The potential of <i>Imbrasia belina</i> worm as a poultry and fish feed. A review

Protein quality of commonly consumed edible insects in Zimbabwe

Consumption of edible insects as alternative animal protein-source is a potential longterm solution to curb protein deficiency in resource-limited communities where diets lacking in protein are predominant. Entomophagy has been expressed in both developed and developing countries, and previous studies have proven that edible insects are high in protein. However, there is paucity of information on protein quality of edible insects to adequately guide populations on their utilization as good alternative protein sources. The aim of this study was to evaluate protein quality of three edible insects commonly consumed in most regions of Zimbabwe, namely Imbrasia belina (mopane worms), Locusta migratoria (locust) and Encosternum delegorguei (stinkbug). Kjeldahl method was used to evaluate crude protein of edible insects and a 20-day mice-feeding trial was conducted to evaluate protein efficiency ratio and protein digestibility in comparison to a control protein (casein). Crude protein was higher in Locusta migratoria (71.2%) compared to Imbrasia belina (57.7%) and Encosternum delegorguei (31.3%). Protein efficiency ratio was lower in insect samples L. migratoria (2.3), I Belina (1.96), E. delegorguei (2.0) compared to control casein (2.5). There was a significant difference (p 0.05) in protein digestibility between the three insect protein sources and casein. The results showed high protein quality of three edible insects commonly consumed in Zimbabwe comparable to casein, a high quality animal protein. High protein digestibility of edible insects indicated ease in absorption and improved utilisation in the body. The lower PER values for I. Belina and E. delegorguei could possibly indicate that these edible insects may be limiting in the amino acids that support body tissue building and growth. Edible insects are a good source of quality protein that could meet protein requirements in resource-limited populations to curb protein deficiency. There is a strong need to further promote edible insects as a good alternative animal protein source. Keywords: Protein Efficiency Ratio, Digestibility, Protein quality, Edible Insects Afr. J. Food Agric. Nutr. Dev . 2019; 19(3): 14674-14689

Enzyme activity and histological analysis of Clarias gariepinus fed on Imbrasia belina meal used for partial replacement of fishmeal.

An experiment was carried out to assess the effect of replacing fishmeal with mopane worm meal in the diet of Clarias gariepinus. Juvenile C. gariepinus weighing 67.04 ± 3g were stocked in 15 rectangular concrete tanks connected to a recirculating system. Five diets denoted D1, D2, D3, D4 and D5 were formulated to replace fishmeal with mopane worm meal at 0, 10, 20, 40 and 60%. Triplicate groups of C. gariepinus were randomly assigned to each diet at a stocking density of 100 fish per tank. The fish were fed to apparent satiation twice daily for 51days. All growth performance indices declined with higher mopane worm inclusion levels. Specific growth rate (SGR) declined from 1.85%/day in the control diet to 1.43%/day in diet 5. Protein efficiency ratio (PER) also declined from 25.27% in the control diet to 19.30% in diet 5. Apparent digestibility coefficient (ADC) followed a similar pattern declining from 92.2% in the control diet to 87.1% in diet 5. Both amylase and protease activity in the stomach increased with higher mopane worm inclusion levels. Despite the increased enzyme activity in the stomach, SGR declined. The decline in SGR was attributed to high acid detergent fibre (ADF 58.4g/kg) and chitin in the mopane worm diets. Lipase and chitinase did not show any discernible pattern with high mopane worm inclusion levels in the stomach. In the intestines, protease, lipase and chitinase did not show any discernible pattern with high mopane worm inclusion levels. Consequently, the relationship between SGR and all these enzymes was weak. However, amylase activity declined with higher mopane worm inclusion levels in the intestines, and this resulted in decreased SGR (r2 = 0.6722). The negative effects of mopane worm meal were further confirmed by the increase in liver degradation scores at high mopane worm inclusion levels. The liver degradation score increased from 1.12 in the control to 2.46 in diet 5.

Exploring the potential for green growth uptake in the South African forest sector

This study assesses the current mode of forest use and management at rural community level in South Africa with a view to locating space for forest-based green growth initiatives development and factors that might shape the uptake of such initiatives. This was done with respect to the need to decouple rural livelihood activities from forest degradation. Vegetation type was used as a criterion to select three municipalities (Makhado, Mutale, and Thulamela) in Vhembe District. Seven rural communities in each municipality were selected giving a total of 21 rural communities. Using stratified proportionate random sampling procedure, a total of 366 households were selected and interviewed. Findings showed that the informal forest sector is best positioned for immediate delivery of green growth benefits to the local communities. Firewood and wild edible insect (mopane worms) were identified as the priority products for forest green growth initiative uptake. However, issues relating to skill and technical capacity were identified as a barrier to the uptake of green growth initiatives in the communities. The study thus recommends capacity enhancement initiatives and forest establishment programmes such as afforestation and reforestation as a means of facilitating forest green growth uptake and delivery of green growth benefits to the study communities.

Effect of Imbrasia belina (Westwood) or Vigna subterranea (L) Verde or Tylosema esculentum (Burchell) Schreiber as protein sources in diets fed to Tswana hens on egg quality

A 90 days study was conducted to compare the effects of feeding Tswana hens reared under intensive system and fed diets formulated from Imbrasia belina (Westwood), Vigna subterranea (L) Verde and Tylosema esculentum (Burchell) Schreiber as sources of protein on egg quality. Four isonitrogenous and isocaloric diets were formulated by totally replacing soybean meal (SBM) with I. belina, V. subterranea and T. esculentum as protein sources while commercial layer diet was used as control diet. Twelve eggs from each pen were collected at 28, 33 and 38 weeks of age for egg quality analysis in a completely randomized design. Egg weight (EW), shell weight (SW), shell thickness (ST), shell index (SI), shell percentage (SP), egg surface area (ESA), egg volume (EV), egg contents (EC) and Haugh units (HU) were measured. Repeated measure analysis showed significant (P<0.05) week × diets interaction effect on EW and SW.  At week 28, hens on T. esculentum diet had the highest (P < 0.05) EW while those on control diet attained the highest (P < 0.05) EW at week 33. Hens fed I. belina diets had the highest (P < 0.05) SW at week 28. However, at weeks 33 and 38, hens on I. belina diets had the smallest (P < 0.05) SW. Hens fed V. subterranea and T. esculentum diets had significantly lower overall SI compared to those on control and I. belina diets. Tylosema esculentum diets did not promote (P<0.05) ESA, EV and EC. However, no influence (P>0.05) of dietary treatments was observed on overall ST, SP and HU. The inclusion of I. belina and V. subterranea on layer diet had no adverse effects on egg quality while the totally replacement of SBM with T. esculentum as protein source impaired egg quality. These results, suggest that I. belina and V. subterranea could completely replace SBM as protein source in the layer diets without any detrimental effects on egg quality.

Effect of Soil Type and Foliar Factors on the Distribution of Imbrasia belina in the Southeastern Lowveld of Zimbabwe.

The aims of this study were to find out whether soil parameters (i.e., soil texture, soil pH, and available nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P)) and level of tannins in the bark of tree as measured by total amount of N & P in the droppings significantly influenced Imbrasia belina distribution in the Southeastern Lowveld of Zimbabwe. The samples were collected in February-March 2013. Standard methods were employed on 80 samples across the four tenure regimes studied. Soil pH, percentage clay, silt, and sand were randomly measured across the four tenure regimes. The study results revealed that soil pH (p=0.475), % silt (p=0.172), % sand (p=0.907), available nitrogen (p=0.192), available phosphorus (p=0.247), and the mean tannin level (p=0.999) influenced the distribution of Imbrasia belina in the study area. Multiple comparison analysis showed that there were significant differences in percentage clay (p=0.044) between Gonakudzingwa Small-Scale Farms (GSSCF) and Chikombedzi Communal Area (CCA). However, Mwenezi Resettlement Area (MRA) and Gonarezhou National Park (GNP) results were insignificant for percentage silt (p=0.172) and percentage sand (p=0.907), respectively. The soil and foliar factors discussed are critical in determining Imbrasia belina distribution, forest health, and vitality.

Insect outbreaks alter nutrient dynamics in a southern African savanna: patchy defoliation of Colophospermum mopane savanna by Imbrasia belina larvae

AbstractInvertebrate herbivore outbreaks have important impacts on system biogeochemical cycling, but these effects have been poorly documented in African savanna ecosystems. In semi‐arid African savannas, outbreaks of the lepidopteran Imbrasia belina (mopane worm) affect discrete patches of the dominant Colophospermum mopane trees; larvae may completely defoliate trees for up to six weeks during each of the early and late growing seasons. We studied the impact of mopane worm outbreaks on the availability of nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K) within mopane savanna by quantifying major nutrient pools in defoliated and non‐defoliated savanna patches, including leaves, leaf litter, worm frass, and the soil beneath trees. Within an outbreak area, approximately 44 percent of trees were infested, supporting ~29,000 worms/ha, leading to ~640 kg/ha dry weight frass deposition at 1.4 g of frass/day‐individual (fourth or fifth instar), compared with an average 1645 kg/ha dry weight of leaf on trees most of which should be deposited by litterfall at the end of the growing season. Frass had twofold higher P, 10 percent higher K, but equivalent N content than litter. Taking frass and litter deposition together, the N, P, and K contents added due to the outbreak event at our study site were 0.88, 5.8, and 2.8 times those measured in non‐outbreak patches, a pattern which was reflected in the nutrient contents of soil surfaces beneath defoliated trees. Invertebrate herbivory appears to be an important driver for mopane savanna but has been largely neglected.

A lepidopteran (Imbrasia belina) might influence tree-grass balance of Colophospermum mopane savanna

Traditional explanations of tree-grass coexistence in African savannas are based on competition between these growth forms or demographic bottlenecks of trees maintained by fire or mammalian browsers. Perturbation of their “balance” may result in an alternate system state of woody encroachment. Invertebrate herbivory has never been offered as an explanation. We developed a consumer-resource model which illustrated that annual irruptions of a lepidopteran (Imbrasia belina), known as mopane worm, can determine the tree-grass balance of semi-arid Colophospermum mopane savanna in southern Africa. Model performance was sensitive to the abundance, hence mortality, of mopane worms, owing to their complete defoliation of tree leaf biomass resulting in altered competitive relations between trees and grasses. Invertebrate herbivores have been recognized in other systems as agents for effecting a state change of host tree populations; this modeling study offers a first indication of such a role for the well-researched tree-grass relations of African savannas.

Baobab fruit pulp and mopane worm as potential functional ingredients to improve the iron and zinc content and bioaccessibility of fermented cereals

Abstract Cereals are of low iron and zinc bioavailability because of high phytic acid (PA) and phenolic compounds (PC). Affordable and sustainable food based strategies are crucial in alleviating mineral deficiencies. In the present study, we evaluated the effect of enriching fermented cereals commonly consumed in Zimbabwe with baobab fruit pulp as a source of ascorbic acid and mopane worm as a source of the “meat factor”, on the iron and zinc content and bioaccessibility. A general positive effect on iron and zinc bioaccessibility was observed for baobab fruit pulp enriched cereals (BEC) while for mopane worm enriched cereals (MEC), a negative effect was generally observed. However, MEC had increased iron and zinc contents such that both BEC and MEC could make a meaningful contribution to iron and zinc nutrition for people in developing countries. Innovation of new value added cereal products using sustainable ingredients is crucial for developing countries.

Evaluation of Imbrasia belina meal as a fishmeal substitute in Oreochromis mossambicus diets: Growth performance, histological analysis and enzyme activity

The main objective of this study was to investigate mopane worm (Imbrasia belina) as a protein source in the diet of Oreochromis mossambicus. One thousand five hundred O. mossambicus fingerlings (40±2.5g) were fed five isonitrogenous, isolipidic and isoenergetic diets formulated to contain 30% crude protein and 20MJ/kggross energy (dry matter basis) for 51days. Fifteen indoor rectangular concrete tanks (1.5m3) connected to a recirculating system were used. Water temperature ranged between 27 and 29°C. The diets were prepared by replacing fishmeal with mopane worm meal at 10%, 20%, 40% and 60%. The diets were coded D2, D3, D4 and D5 respectively. A control diet with no mopane worm meal was coded D1. The diets were fed to triplicate groups of O. mossambicus twice a day. Specific growth rate (SGR), Thermal-unit growth coefficient (TGC), protein efficiency ratio (PER) and apparent digestibility coefficient (ADC) increased with higher inclusion levels of mopane worm meal. Feed conversion ratio (FCR) also improved with higher inclusion levels. However, the highest growth performance (SGR: 3.49%; FCR: 1.29) was recorded in fish fed the fishmeal based control diet. Protease, amylase and lipase activities were determined in the intestines. Both protease and amylase activity were significantly higher (P<0.05) at high mopane worm inclusion levels. It is suggested that the high protein levels of the mopane worm diet elicited high protease activity. The health status of the fish was evaluated by examining the liver and intestine histology. There were no evident histological alterations of either liver or intestine as mopane worm meal inclusion levels increased. This showed that mopane worm meal may be a good candidate for the replacement of fishmeal in O. mossambicus diets. The highest profit index (1.67) was recorded in the 60% mopane worm inclusion level. The lowest profit index was in the control. More studies on mopane worm meal as a substitute of fishmeal are recommended in other fish species.

Impact of different preparations on the nutritional value of the edible caterpillar Imbrasia epimethea from northern Angola

In contrast to most European countries, raw and processed insects are a part of the traditional diet in Africa, especially among poor people in rural areas. This paper presents a first nutritional analysis of the caterpillar species Imbrasia epimethea (Drury), which is widely collected and eaten in the Uige Province, northern Angola. Major nutrients were analysed with focus on the impact of different traditional preparation techniques (evisceration, cooking and/or drying). The native larvae revealed similar nutritional values (protein and fat content, amino and fatty acid composition) as Gonimbrasia belina, another member of Lepidoptera, and a higher quality than mealworms and crickets. With respect to more “Western” diets, the protein content of I. epimethea was found to be similar to tuna, chicken and beef, while essential amino acid were lower, resulting in lower essential amino acid indices. Fat contents were lower than in chicken, tuna and beef. Its fatty acid profile, with high percentages of polyunsaturated fatty acids, makes it a valuable contribution to human nutrition. The different preparation methods had only limited impact on the nutritional composition of the caterpillars. The removal of the gut reduced carbohydrates originating from the leaves of the host plant, and thus significantly raised protein and (non-significantly) fat contents. Thermal processing had no significant negative effect on the nutritional value except for the decrease of monounsaturated fatty acids. Thus, I. epimethea represents a valuable traditional alternative to food from other animal sources, especially with regard to its fatty acid composition.

Habitats and nutritional composition of selected edible insects in Zimbabwe

Edible insects are gaining recognition as food with potential of contributing to attainment of household food security. In sub-Saharan Africa, sustainable use of insects as food is threatened by lack of data on host plants and habitatassociations. In addition, lack of nutritional data on most edible insects reduces consumer confidence and limits integration of insect consumption with other food sources. This study was undertaken to review, collate and assembledispersed information of some edible insects of Zimbabwe. Data on species identities, host plants and habitats weregathered for 14 species from reputable literature sources and Bulawayo Natural History Museum records. In addition, nutritional assessments were carried out on 10 widely consumed insects in Zimbabwe. Standard ecological samplingprocedures were used to collect insect specimens. Proximate analyses were conducted following the Association of Official Analytical Chemists standard procedures using dried pulverised material. Majority (60%) of reviewedinsects had reliable host plants and habitats records. More than half of these were recorded in agro-ecosystems. On dry matter basis, protein content ranged from 22%(Gryllotalpa africana) to 55.4% (Gonimbrasia belina); fat content ranged from 10.8% (G. africana) to 41.6% (Macrotermes natalensis). Ash content was &gt;10% in the ground dwellingG. africana (12.6%) andEulopida mashona larvae (10.9%). Wide species differences were recorded for carbohydrate content; 0.4% inM. natalensis and 47.2% inG. africana. Carbohydrates content was inversely relatedto protein and fat contents for all insects. Energy and fat contents were positively related in all the insects. Overall, insect species from this study have high proximate constituents that can match plant and animal products diets andcan be considered as potential viable alternative nutritious food sources. Findings from this study are expected to promote greater recognition of insects as food in Zimbabwe and encourage up-scaling of their sustainable utilisation.

Mopane worm (Imbrasia belina) and rural household food security in Limpopo province, South Africa

Rural households in South Africa are vulnerable to food and income adversity. As a result, they adopt a range of livelihoods strategies, including consumption and trade of woodland resources to improve their living standards. Mopane worms (caterpillars of the Emperor Moth Imbrasia belina) have been identified as important to rural livelihoods, as an alternative land-use option as well as in fulfilling an important food security function. Whilst mopane worms may contribute to food security, this safety-net function needs more critical and quantitative investigation. This study examined the relationship between mopane worm consumption and household’s food security in the Limpopo Province, South Africa using the Household Food Insecurity Access Scale (HFIAS) and the Tobit regression model based on a household survey of 120 respondents. The result from HFIAS showed that about 52 % of the households were severely food insecure, while others were either mildly or moderately food insecure. Only 16 % of the households were food secure. The Tobit regression model estimates show that proxy variables (i.e. income from mopane worm trade and the frequency of mopane worm consumption) measuring the contribution of mopane worms to rural household food security are statistically significant factors influencing household food insecurity in the study area. Implications for policy are discussed.

Nutritional Composition and Microbiology of Some Edible Insects Commonly Eaten in Africa, Hurdles and Future Prospects: A Critical Review

An overview of the microbiology and nutritional composition of eight (8) insects, Bunaea alcinoe, Rhynchophorus phoenicis, Gonimbrasia belina, Gryllotalpa africana, Cirina forda, Brachytrupes membranaceus, Macrotermes natalensis, and Anaphe venata used as food is presented. All the edible insects whose microbiological flora is known have mixed population of bacteria with Bacillus and Staphylococcus persistently occurring. The Gram-negative population is more diverse and included members of the genera, Acinetobacter, Enterobacter, Klebsiella, Proteus, Pseudomonas and Serratia. Available data show that edible insects contain protein concentrations ranging from 22.06 to 74.35% (Lepidoptera (≥ 38+ to 74.35%), Coleoptera larva (22.06 to 30.30%), Coleoptera adult (26.85 to 32.71%), Isoptera (35.06%) and Orthoptera (65.62%). The larval forms seem to have a high fat content compared to the adult forms. The ten essential amino acids are present in varying amounts while the major fatty acids are palmitic, oleic and linoleic, which is highly unsaturated. Different species of Rhynchophorus species may have different quantities of amino acids or indeed, domestication may affect the quantities of amino acids of Rhynchophorus species. The major fatty acids (occurring at more than 10%) of R. phoenicis (Coleoptera) are palmitic acid, oleic acid and linoleic acid while those of G. belina and C. forda (Lepidoptera) are palmitic, oleic, linoleic and stearic acids. Macro-elements and micro-elements of R. phoenicis occur at significant amounts. Iron and magnesium occur in the order, Coleoptera, more than in Isoptera, Lepidoptera and Orthoptera. There seems to be a dearth of information on the macro- and micro-elements, amino acid and fatty acid compositions of some insects. A more comprehensive, standardised and universally acceptable method for estimating proximate composition of edible insects is advocated so that values obtained can be scientifically compared. Further work on comprehensive nutritional studies and microbiological flora of edible insects and insect husbandry/farming are also advocated.

Socio-economic factors influencing mopane worm (Imbrasia belina) harvesting in Limpopo Province, South Africa

In South Africa, non-timber forest products, especially mopane worms (Imbrasia belina) have become an important source of food and cash income for rural people living in or near the mopane woodlands. However, the continued harvesting has implications for long term management of the mopane woodlands in the northern parts of South Africa. In order to keep a balance between mopane worm harvesting and biodiversity, an understanding of socio-economic factors influencing the harvest at household level is vital to reducing depletion and overexploitation of the mopane woodland resources. This study evaluated the socio-economic factors influencing mopane worm harvesting decisions in rural households in Limpopo Province, South Africa using a binary logistic regression model based on a household survey of 120 respondents. Age, gender, education, income from mopane worm sales, social capital (group affiliation), household size, lack of institution/law to regulate use, distance to the nearest harvesting site, and regional locations were statistically significant factors influencing household mopane worm harvest decisions. Implications for policy are discussed.

Commercialisation of mopane worm (Imbrasia belina) in rural households in Limpopo Province, South Africa

Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFPs) have been identified as a key source of income for rural households. In South Africa, mopane worms (Imbrasia belina) have become an important source of food and cash income for rural people living in or near the mopane woodlands. However, the continued over-exploitation and commercialisation has implications for long term management of the mopane woodlands in the northern parts of South Africa. This study used a cross-sectional dataset collected from a survey of 120 households in Limpopo province in an effort to identify socio-economic factors influencing mopane worm commercialisation and intensity of commercialisation. The Household Commercialisation Index (HCI) and the Double Hurdle Model were used for the analysis. Result shows that about 63% of mopane worm harvested is sold within a production year which implies high level of commercialisation. The result of the Double Hurdle Model showed that gender, education, household size, quantity harvested, social capital, distance, transportation and information impact on households’ decision-making to commercialised mopane worm. Furthermore, household age, gender, education, exogenous income, price, quantity of marketable surplus, absence of institution/law and transportation are statistically significant factors influencing the intensity of mopane worm commercialisation in the study area. This therefore suggests that, in order to achieve a balance between sustainable harvesting of mopane worm and improving the livelihoods of the rural poor that depends on it for food and income, there is a need for policy makers to focus on the dynamics in household socio-economic conditions. Implications for policy were discussed.

English

Non timber forest products such as Imbrasia belina (mopane worms) provide a wide range of benefits to the rural dwellers in the semi-arid areas of South East Lowveld of Zimbabwe. Rules and regulations governing mopane worm use and access in the study area that comprised of a communal area, resettlement area, small-scale farms and a national game park and the relationship of these rules to harvesting of mopane worms were analysed using questionnaire, observational studies and one way analysis of variance (ANOVA).This paper examines the extent to which access to non-timber forest products especially the harvesting of mopane worms is governed by the existence of institutional arrangements and common property management regimes. The results of the study indicated that possession of a permit is a pre-requisite requirement to harvest timber and non-timber forest products in Gonarezhou National park. Harvesters in Mwenezi resettlement areas and Chikombedzi communal area indicated that rules for mopane worm harvesting were either weak or non-existent. In Gonakudzingwa Small Scale Farms, harvesters had to seek permission from the farm owner before any harvesting of mopane worms could take place. The results from the study showed that there were significant differences in the quantity of mopane worms harvested between Gonarezhou National Park and Chikombedzi Communal Area (p = 0.036), Gonakudzingwa Small Scale Commercial Farms and Chikombedzi Communal Area (p = 0.001), Mwenezi Resettlement Area and Chikombedzi Communal Area (p = 0.001). However, there were no differences between the Gonarezhou National Park, Gonakudzingwa Small Scale Commercial Farms and Mwenezi Resettlement Area. Findings of this study suggest the need for adaptive local management systems that enhance sustainable use of the resource and at the same time regulates the harvesting and the market structure of non-timber forest products. Key words: Imbrasia belina, mopane worm, harvesting, tenure regime, access; non-timber forest products.