Horserace Betting Research Articles

Review of Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Klebsiella pneumoniae as venereal pathogens in horses.

Three bacteria extensively acknowledged as venereal pathogens with the potential to induce endometritis include Taylorella equigenitalis, the causative agent of contagious equine metritis (CEM), specific strains of Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and certain capsule types of Klebsiella pneumoniae. The United Kingdom's Horserace Betting Levy Board recommends pre-breeding screening for these bacteria in their International Codes of Practice and >20 000 samples are tested per annum in the United Kingdom alone. While the pathogenesis and regulatory importance of CEM are well established, an evaluation of the literature pertaining to venereal transmission of P. aeruginosa and K. pneumoniae was lacking. The aim of this review was to evaluate published literature and determine the significance of P. aeruginosa and K. pneumoniae as venereal pathogens in horses. Literature definitively demonstrating venereal transmission was not available. Instead, application of molecular typing methods suggested that common environmental sources of contamination, such as water, or fomites be considered as modes of transmission. The presence of organisms with pathogenic potential on a horse's external genitalia did not predict venereal transmission with resultant endometritis and reduced fertility. These findings may prompt further investigation using molecular technologies to confirm or exclude venereal spread and investigation of alternative mechanisms of transmission are indicated.

Entropy-Based Strategies for Multi-Bracket Pools.

Much work in the parimutuel betting literature has discussed estimating event outcome probabilities or developing optimal wagering strategies, particularly for horse race betting. Some betting pools, however, involve betting not just on a single event, but on a tuple of events. For example, pick six betting in horse racing, March Madness bracket challenges, and predicting a randomly drawn bitstring each involve making a series of individual forecasts. Although traditional optimal wagering strategies work well when the size of the tuple is very small (e.g., betting on the winner of a horse race), they are intractable for more general betting pools in higher dimensions (e.g., March Madness bracket challenges). Hence we pose the multi-brackets problem: supposing we wish to predict a tuple of events and that we know the true probabilities of each potential outcome of each event, what is the best way to tractably generate a set of n predicted tuples? The most general version of this problem is extremely difficult, so we begin with a simpler setting. In particular, we generate n independent predicted tuples according to a distribution having optimal entropy. This entropy-based approach is tractable, scalable, and performs well.

Update on emerging multidrug-resistant Rhodococcus equi.

Jose Vázquez-Boland, Jorge Val-Calvo and Mariela Scortti present a brief summary of the main aspects surrounding the recently identified multidrug-resistant Rhodococcus equi that emerged in the USA and the actions being taken to tackle the problem with support from the UK's Horserace Betting Levy Board.

TENDON HEALTH AND DISEASE: EXPLORING THE INTERFASCICULAR NICHE

Tendon injury is debilitating and recalcitrant. With limited knowledge of disease aitiology we have are lacking in effective treatments for this prevalent musculoskeletal complaint.This presentation will outline our findings over the past few years in which we have demonstrated the importance of the interfascicular matrix (IFM) niche in maintaining healthy tendon function and driving disease progression1,2. It will also continue to describe our progress in developing both in vivo and in vitro models to interrogate disease progression.We have developed and validated a rat Achilles tendon overload model, in order to explore the impact of loading on IFM and fascicle structure, and the resulting cell response. Data highlights that structural disruption and inflammatory response both initiate in the IFM region, and can be seen in the absence of demonstrable changes to animal gait, indicating a sub-injury response in the tendon which we hypothesis may drive increased matrix turnover and repair3.We are now looking to interrogate the pathways driving this inflammatory behaviour in an organ-chip model, exploring the interplay between IFM cells and cells within fascicles. We have demonstrated phenotypic distinction of cells from the two niche environments, localized the progenitor phenotype to the IFM region and demonstrated significant mechanosensitivity in the IFM cell population4. We are currently building appropriate niche environments to maintain cell phenotype in our in vitro models, to explore the metabolic changes associated with disease progression.Acknowledgements: This body of work has received funding from: BBSRC (BB/K008412 /1); Versus Arthritis (project grant 20262); Horserace Betting Levy Board (T5); Dunhill Medical Charity (project grant RPGF1802\23); MRC (MR/T015462/1).

Enumerative theory for the Tsetlin library

The Tsetlin library is a well-studied Markov chain on the symmetric group Sn. It has stationary distribution π(σ) the Luce model, a nonuniform distribution on Sn, which appears in psychology, horse race betting, and tournament poker. Simple enumerative questions, such as “what is the distribution of the top k cards?” or “what is the distribution of the bottom k cards?” are long open. We settle these questions and draw attention to a host of parallel questions on the extension to the chambers of a hyperplane arrangement.

Is there evidence demonstrating venereal transmission of clitoral Pseudomonas aeruginosa in horses?

Veterinary RecordVolume 192, Issue 11 p. 444-446 Evaluating the evidence Is there evidence demonstrating venereal transmission of clitoral Pseudomonas aeruginosa in horses? Julie Storme, Corresponding Author Julie Storme [email protected] School of Veterinary Medicine, University College Dublin, Dublin, IrelandSearch for more papers by this authorVictoria J Brookes, Victoria J Brookes Sydney School of Veterinary Science, University of Sydney, Camperdown, New South Wales, AustraliaSearch for more papers by this authorAllan Gunn, Allan Gunn School of Agricultural, Environmental and Veterinary Sciences, Charles Sturt University, Wagga Wagga, New South Wales, AustraliaSearch for more papers by this author Julie Storme, Corresponding Author Julie Storme [email protected] School of Veterinary Medicine, University College Dublin, Dublin, IrelandSearch for more papers by this authorVictoria J Brookes, Victoria J Brookes Sydney School of Veterinary Science, University of Sydney, Camperdown, New South Wales, AustraliaSearch for more papers by this authorAllan Gunn, Allan Gunn School of Agricultural, Environmental and Veterinary Sciences, Charles Sturt University, Wagga Wagga, New South Wales, AustraliaSearch for more papers by this author First published: 02 June 2023 https://doi.org/10.1002/vetr.3140Read the full textAboutPDF ToolsRequest permissionExport citationAdd to favoritesTrack citation ShareShare Give accessShare full text accessShare full-text accessPlease review our Terms and Conditions of Use and check box below to share full-text version of article.I have read and accept the Wiley Online Library Terms and Conditions of UseShareable LinkUse the link below to share a full-text version of this article with your friends and colleagues. Learn more.Copy URL No abstract is available for this article. References 1 Horserace Betting Levy Board. International Codes of Practice 2023. https://codes.hblb.org.uk (accessed 20 March 2023) 2Atherton JG, Pitt TL. Types of Pseudomonas aeruginosa isolated from horses. Equine Vet J 1982; 14: 329– 32 3Kidd TJ, Gibson JS, Moss S, et al. Clonal complex Pseudomonas aeruginosa in horses. Vet Microbiol 2011; 149: 508– 12 4Allen JL, Begg AP, Browning GF. Outbreak of equine endometritis caused by a genotypically identical strain of Pseudomonas aeruginosa. J Vet Diagn Invest 2011; 23: 1236– 9 5Tiago G, Júlio C, António R. Conception rate, uterine infection and embryo quality after artificial insemination and natural breeding with a stallion carrier of Pseudomonas aeruginosa: a case report. Acta Vet Scand 2012; doi: 10.1186/1751-0147-54-20 6Hughes JP, Loy RG, Asbury AC, et al. The occurrence of Pseudomonas in the reproductive tract of mares and its effect on fertility. Cornell Vet 1966; 56: 595– 610 7Hughes JP, Asbury AC, Loy RG, et al. The occurrence of Pseudomonas in the genital tract of stallions and its effects on fertility. Cornell Vet 1967; 57: 53– 69 8Christoffersen M, Troedsson MHT. Inflammation and fertility in the mare. Reprod Domest Anim 2017; 52: 14– 20 9Kenney RM, Cummings MR, Zierdt CH, et al. Pseudomonas aeruginosa - somatic typing of genitaltract isolates and colonization of the stallion penis significance, diagnosis, and treatment. Proc 38th Ann Con am Ass Equine Pract 1992: 601– 8 10Blanchard TL, Kenney RM, Timoney PJ. Venereal disease. Vet Clin N Am Equine Pract 1992; 8: 191– 203 11Johnson TL, Kenney RM, McGee WR, et al. Pseudomonas infection in a stallion: a case report. Proc Am Assoc Equine Pract 1980; 26: 111– 6 12Pickett BW, Voss JL, Jones RL. Control of bacteria in stallions and their semen. J Equine Vet Sci 1999; 19: 424– 41 13Malmgren L, Olsson Engvall E, Engvall A, et al. Aerobic bacterial flora of semen and stallion reproductive tract and its relation to fertility under field conditions. Acta Vet Scand 1998; 39: 173– 82 14Klug E, Sieme H. Infectious agents in equine semen. Acta Vet Scand Suppl 1992; 88: 73– 81 15Kenney RM, Bergman RV, Cooper WL, et al. Minimal contamination techniques for breeding mares: technique and preliminary findings. Proc 21st Ann Con am Ass Equine Pract 1976: 327– 36 16Hinrichs K, Cummings MR, Sertich PL, et al. Clinical significance of aerobic bacterial flora of the uterus, vagina, vestibule, and clitoral fossa of clinically normal mares. J Am Vet Med Assoc 1988; 193: 72– 5 17Lee S, Lee I. PCR-based determination of the prevalence of common venereal bacterial pathogens in breeding Thoroughbreds of South Korea. J Vet Clinics 2019; 36: 245– 7 18Albihn A, Båverud V, Magnusson U. Uterine microbiology and antimicrobial susceptibility in isolated bacteria from mares with fertility problems. Acta Vet Scand 2003; 44: 121– 9 19Ricketts SW. Uterine and clitoral cultures. In: AO MCKinnon, EL Squires, WE Vaala, et al, eds. Equine Reproduction, Volume 2. Ames: Wiley-Blackwell, 2011: 1963– 78 20LeBlanc MM, Causey RC. Clinical and subclinical endometritis in the mare: both threats to fertility. Reprod Domest Anim 2009; 44: 10– 22 21LeBlanc MM. Advances in the diagnosis and treatment of chronic infectious and postmating-induced endometritis in the mare. Reprod Domest Anim 2010; 45: 21– 7 Volume192, Issue113/10 June 2023Pages 444-446 ReferencesRelatedInformation

Gambling in the Moral Economy: A Case Study of Law and Regulation in a Pandemic

This article adapts the concept of the moral economy and applies that adapted concept to UK gambling regulation during the early years (2020-21) of the COVID-19 pandemic. I extend the moral economy concept beyond the eighteenth-century English food riot, and beyond food staples. I also examine the role of law and regulation in the moral economy and highlight charity's importance to moral economy debates. I then consider gambling through a moral economy lens by exploring the pandemic-era regulation of horserace betting, lotteries, and bingo. I show that gambling in some forms (horserace betting and lotteries) was important to pandemic recovery projects and to spectacles of national coming together. Via lotteries, for example, the state sought to adjust customary expectations about the role of volunteers in providing essential services. Although regulators generally ignored bingo, there was a pandemic resurgence in self-organized games that is especially significant for work on the moral economy. I conclude by identifying some broader implications of this study, including on how essentiality is legally constructed, and on charity and volunteering within the moral economy.

Development and validation of a prediction model for online gambling problems based on players' account data.

Gambling disorder is characterized by problematic gambling behavior that causes significant problems and distress. This study aimed to develop and validate a predictive model for screening online problem gamblers based on players' account data. Two random samples of French online gamblers in skill-based (poker, horse race betting and sports betting, n = 8,172) and pure chance games (scratch games and lotteries, n = 5,404) answered an online survey and gambling tracking data were retrospectively collected for the participants. The survey included age and gender, gambling habits, and the Problem Gambling Severity Index (PGSI). We used machine learning algorithms to predict the PGSI categories with gambling tracking data. We internally validated the prediction models in a leave-out sample. When predicting gambling problems binary based on each PGSI threshold (1for low-risk gambling, 5 for moderate-risk gambling and 8 for problem gambling), the predictive performances were good for the model for skill-based games (AUROCs from 0.72 to 0.82), but moderate for the model for pure chance games (AUROCs from 0.63 to 0.76, with wide confidence intervals) due to the lower frequency of problem gambling in this sample. When predicting the four PGSI categories altogether, performances were good for identifying extreme categories (non-problem and problem gamblers) but poorer for intermediate categories (low-risk and moderate-risk gamblers), whatever the type of game. We developed an algorithm for screening online problem gamblers, excluding online casino gamblers, that could enable the setting of prevention measures for the most vulnerable gamblers.

Does IQ predict engagement with skill‐based gambling? Large‐scale evidence from horserace betting

AbstractWe examine how measured intelligence, referred to as IQ, predicts a consumer's decisions on whether to participate in online horse wagering, how much to spend on those bets, and which horserace betting products to consume. We combine three individual‐level archival data sets from Finland, including all online horse bets during a 1‐year period from the state‐sanctioned monopoly operator, the Finnish Defence Forces' IQ test scores from male conscripts born between 1962 and 1990 (N = 705,809), and administrative registry data on socioeconomic status, income, and education for these men. An analysis of male bettors (N = 15,488) shows that IQ is a positive predictor of participation and spending. In addition, high IQ is associated with choosing more complex (high variance) betting products. We find that these results are driven primarily by numerical IQ.

Horserace Betting Levy Board: codes of practice update

This article summarises the main updates to the Horserace Betting Levy Board codes of practice for 2022. The main points discussed include: the addition of a section on preparation of mares for covering in response to mares being presented with polymerase chain reaction tests for contagious equine metritis only, without appropriate gynaecological preparation and bacteriology; a clarification regarding the swabbing of at-risk or suspected horses for contagious equine metritis; a revision to the guidelines for strangles, highlighting the fact that negative serology tests do not always guarantee absence of the carrier state of strangles; new guidelines on piroplasmosis and the significance of the disease in the UK; an update to the equine influenza vaccine requirements; and the clarification regarding the diagnosis of West Nile fever and the potential significance of the disease to the UK. The importance of constant vigilance regarding infectious diseases and adherence to strict biosecurity protocols is highlighted and the threat of exotic diseases, which could potentially emerge in the UK, is briefly discussed.

Income elasticity of demand for horse wagering — Large-scale evidence from online betting accounts

The paper investigates income elasticity of demand for online horserace betting, using individual account data and administrative data from Finland. Overall income elasticity is positive but low. However, elasticity varies substantially across the income distribution from near-zero at the bottom to unity among higher income groups. Increased betting expenditure as income increases is associated with greater intensity rather than with greater frequency of betting.

Impact of wagering inducements on the gambling behaviors of on-line gamblers: A longitudinal study based on gambling tracking data.

AimsTo estimate whether the use of wagering inducements has a significant impact on the gambling behaviors of on‐line gamblers and describe this temporal relation under naturalistic conditions.DesignThis longitudinal observational study is part of the second stage of the Screening for Excessive Gambling Behaviors on the Internet (EDEIN) research program.SettingGambling tracking data from the French national on‐line gambling authority (poker, horse race betting and sports betting) and from the French national lottery operator (lotteries and scratch games).ParticipantsA total of 9306 gamblers who played poker, horse race or sports betting and 5682 gamblers who played lotteries and scratch games completed an on‐line survey. The gender ratio was largely male (between 87.1% and 92.9% for poker, horse race betting and sports betting, and equal to 65.1% for lotteries). Median age ranged from 35 (sports betting) to 53 (horse race betting and lotteries).MeasurementsThe survey used the Problem Gambling Severity Index (PGSI) to determine the status of the gamblers (at‐risk or not). Gambling tracking data included weekly gambling intensity (wagers, deposits), gambling frequency (number of gambling days), proxies of at‐risk gambling behaviors (chasing and breadth of involvement) and use of wagering inducements.FindingsThe use of wagering inducements was associated with an increase of gambling intensity [β between −0.06 (−0.08; –0.05) and 0.57 (0.54; 0.60)], gambling frequency [β between 0.12 (0.10; 0.18) and 0.29 (0.28; 0.31)] and at‐risk gambling behaviors [odds ratio between 1.32 (1.16; 1.50) and 4.82 (4.61; 5.05)] at the same week of their use. This effect was stronger for at‐risk gambling behaviors and at‐risk gamblers.ConclusionsWagering inducements may represent a risk factor for developing or exacerbating gambling problems.

Impact of Warning Pop-Up Messages on the Gambling Behavior, Craving, and Cognitions of Online Gamblers: A Randomized Controlled Trial.

Background: Many features of Internet gambling may impact problem severity, particularly for vulnerable populations (availability, anonymity, a convenience and ease of play, digital forms of payment, and a higher level of immersion). To prevent the risks associated with excessive gambling and to inform gamblers, we need responsible gambling strategies. Gambling-related warning messages are one possible strategy that can help minimizing gambling-related harm.Methods: Our experimental study aimed to evaluate the effectiveness of self-appraisal and informative pop-up messages compared to a control condition (blank pop-up messages), for both at-risk (ARG) and low risk/non-problem Internet gamblers (LR/NPG) according to their favorite type of game, in a semi naturalistic setting and with a 15-day follow-up. During the experimental session, participants were invited to gamble on their favorite website with their own money in the laboratory. Effectiveness was investigated through the impact of pop-ups on gambling behavior (money wagered and time spent), craving, cognitive distortions, and gambling experience, taking into account message recall. We analyzed data from 58 participants, playing preferentially either to skill and chance bank games (sports betting, horse race betting) and skill and chance social games (poker).Results: We observed a significant decrease in the illusion of control for ARG in the informative pop-up condition at the 15-day follow-up. A significant effect of self-appraisal pop-ups compared to blank pop-up messages was also demonstrated only for sport and horse bettors, with a decrease on time spent gambling and an increase of gambling-related expectancies at the follow-up. Finally, we also observed that a majority of the participants were disturbed and irritated by pop-ups during their gambling session.Conclusions: The results of our study demonstrated the limited impact of pop-up warning messages on gambling behavior and cognition in Internet gamblers according to the type of game and the status of gamblers. The limited impact of warning messages on gambling behavior and the inconvenience of the pop-ups for Internet gamblers lead us to only consider warning messages as one piece of a larger responsible gambling strategy.Trial Registration Number: NCT01789580 on February 12, 2013.

Reasons for Gambling and Problem Gambling Among Norwegian Horse Bettors: A Real-World Study Utilizing Combining Survey Data and Behavioral Player Data

Despite the popularity of horserace gambling around the world, there is surprisingly little in-depth research on the topic. Additionally, studies suggest that motives for gambling are an important proximal factor related to problematic gambling among young people and adults. The present study investigated reasons for gambling among Norwegian horse bettors utilizing questions based on the Reasons for Gambling Questionnaire. The Norwegian gambling operator Rikstoto tracks all players’ behavior across all game types on the internet as well as land-based gambling and provided the data for the study. Consequently, the responses to the questions were correlated with actual gambling behavior. The authors were given access to an anonymized dataset of 3627 players (934 females and 2693 males) from the Norwegian horse betting operator Rikstoto who all completed a short survey. The reasons for gambling most endorsed by horserace bettors were to win big prizes and for excitement. The least endorsed reasons for gambling were to impress other people and to decrease tension. Gambling for money and gambling for recreation and coping were the most highly correlated with self-reported problem gambling. Age was significant and negatively correlated with self-reported gambling problems. The number of bets made, the amount of money consciously bet (i.e., players choosing the horse(s) compared to letting a random generator choose), as well as the monthly loss limit were significant and positively correlated. To the best of the authors’ knowledge, the present study is the first to investigate (i) motivations to gamble combining self-report data with data from a real-world setting, (ii) horserace betting with actual player data, and (iii) correlations between self-reported information about gambling problems with actual gambling behavior and self-reported motivation to play. Consequently, the findings are of high existential value to the gambling studies field.

Does the Offline Environment Matter in Online Horse Race Betting Engagement?

Abstract: While the viability of many racing industries depends crucially on the sport attracting online bettors, relatively little is known about the role the local offline environment and fan interest plays in consumers’ online gambling. Using Finland as a data source, this paper investigates how off-track betting opportunities and the level of interest in horses in a local environment are associated with online horse race betting engagement. Whilst previous research has usually relied on self-reported surveys, we use objective data extracted from consumers’ online horse race betting accounts and data sources covering the horse race betting environment, equine statistics, and sociodemographic statistics of Finnish municipalities. Our findings suggest that the off-track betting environment and the level of interest in horses in a municipality appear to be predictors of online horse race betting engagement as measured by betting volume and the number of bettors.

FUTURES OF GAMING: HOW CASINOS AND GAMBLING MIGHT EVOLVE IN THE NEAR FUTURE

FUTURES OF GAMING: HOW CASINOS AND GAMBLING MIGHT EVOLVE IN THE NEAR FUTURE

Keeping a weather eye on prediction markets: The influence of environmental conditions on forecasting accuracy

Increasingly, prediction markets are being embraced as a mechanism for eliciting and aggregating dispersed information and providing a means of deriving probabilistic forecasts of future uncertain events. The efficient market hypothesis postulates that prediction market prices should incorporate all information that is relevant to the performances of the contracts traded. This paper shows that such may not be the case in relation to information regarding environmental factors such as the weather and atmospheric conditions. In the context of horserace betting markets, we demonstrate that even after the effects of these factors on the contestants (horses and jockeys) have been discounted, the accuracy of the probabilities derived from market prices is affected systematically by the prevailing weather and atmospheric conditions. We show that significantly better forecasts can be derived from prediction markets if we correct for this phenomenon, and that these improvements have substantial economic value.

Misperception explains favorite-longshot bias: evidence from the Finnish and Swedish harness horse race markets

We use a unique data set from Finnish and Swedish horse race betting markets to explain the favorite-longshot bias. The data set includes a complete set of odds for exotic markets. We use the exotic market odds in conjunction with the win market odds and find convincing support for the misperceptions explanation of the favorite-longshot bias rather than the risk-love explanation. Furthermore, our data provide evidence of a specific type of failure to reduce compound lotteries. Namely, it seems that bettors do not assess the exotic market events as simple lotteries but instead consider the race for the first place and the race for the second place in a sequential form.

Effectiveness of At-Risk Gamblers' Temporary Self-Exclusion from Internet Gambling Sites.

To prevent risks associated with online gambling, many jurisdictions propose self-exclusion strategies as a part of a responsible gambling policy. To protect online gamblers, French law provides for a 7-day temporary non-reducible and voluntary self-exclusion measure that applies only to select websites. The objective of our study was to evaluate the effectiveness of this self-exclusion measure for at-risk online gamblers. It was an experimental randomized controlled trial targeted at risk prevention. The main outcomes were the money wagered and time spent gambling assessed 15days (short-term) and 2months (medium-term) after the implementation of the self-exclusion measure. The effectiveness of self-exclusion was also compared according to the gambling type (pure chance games, such as lottery or scratch tickets, skill and chance bank games such as sports betting or horserace betting, and skill and chance games such as poker). Sixty participants were randomly assigned to the experimental condition (n = 30; with the implementation of a self-exclusion measure) or control condition (n = 30). The randomization was stratified according to their favorite game [pure chance games (n = 20), skill and chance bank games (n = 20), and skill and chance social games (n = 20)]. The results revealed that self-exclusion had no short-term impact-but did have a medium-term impact-on gambling habits. After 2months, the gambling-related cognitions ("illusion of control" and "the perceived inability to stop gambling") and the subscale "desire" of the Gambling Craving Scale (GACS) have decreased. Participants' opinions about the impact and effectiveness of self-exclusion were discussed. To conclude, it appeared that temporary self-exclusion is an interesting tool to protect online gamblers from excessive practices, but several modifications have to be made to improve its effectiveness and use.

Gambling expenditure by game type among weekly gamblers in Finland

BackgroundExcessive expenditure and financial harms are core features of problem gambling. There are various forms of gambling and their nature varies. The aim was to measure gambling expenditure by game type while controlling for demographics and other gambling participation factors. A further aim was to find out how each game type was associated with gambling expenditure when the number of game types played is adjusted for.MethodsUsing data from the 2015 Finnish Gambling survey on adult gamblers (n = 3555), multiple log-linear regression was used to examine the effects of demographics, gambling participation, and engaging in different game types on weekly gambling expenditure (WGE) and relative gambling expenditure (RGE).ResultsMale gender, lower education level, higher gambling frequency and higher number of game types increased both WGE and RGE, while younger age decreased WGE but increased RGE. Furthermore, seven specific game types increased both WGE and RGE. Weekly horse race betting and non-monopoly gambling had the strongest increasing effect on expenditure. Betting games and online poker were associated with higher expenditure even when they were played less often than weekly. Among weekly gamblers the highest mean WGE was recorded for those who played non-monopoly games (146.84 €/week), online poker (59.61 €/week), scratch games (51.77 €/week) and horse race betting (48.67 €/week). Those who played only 1–2 game types a week had the highest mean WGE and RGE on horse race betting and other betting games.ConclusionsIt seems that overall gambling frequency is the strongest indicator of high gambling expenditure. Our results showed that different game types had different effect sizes on gambling expenditure. Weekly gambling on horse races and non-monopoly games had the greatest increasing effect on expenditure. However, different game types also varied based on their popularity. The extent of potential harms caused by high expenditure therefore also varies on the population level. Based on our results, future prevention and harm minimization efforts should be tailored to different game types for greater effectiveness.