High Salt Water Research Articles

Differential effects of salinity and drought on germination and early seedling growth of Parkinsonia praecox

Context Germination and seedling growth are critical stages in the establishment of a species under adverse environmental conditions. Parkinsonia praecox is a species that can establish in soils with high salt concentrations and water deficit conditions. Aims This study focused on the germination and early growth responses of P. praecox seeds exposed to different salinity and water deficit treatments, to understand its distribution and its potential to persist in stressful environments. Methods P. praecox seeds were exposed to solutions containing NaCl (for salinity) and polyethylene glycol (PEG; for water deficit) at a range of potentials −0.4, −0.8, −1.2, −1.5 and −1.9 MPa, and germination and early growth responses were evaluated. Controls were exposed to distilled water treatments (0 MPa). Key results The highest germination was obtained in the distilled water treatment, whereas drought imposed by PEG and salinity caused a decrease in the percentage and speed of germination. Seed germination significantly decreased at 1.2 MPa in the saline treatments but at −0.8 MPa in PEG solutions. However, at −1.2 MPa and higher, the germination rate was higher in PEG-treated seedlings compared to those exposed to NaCl. Considerable early seedling growth was observed in low potentials and high saline conditions. Conclusions The effects of salinity and drought on germination and early growth response of P. praecox contributes to the species’ restricted distribution in arid and saline regions. Implications These findings advance our knowledge of P. praecox responses under stressful conditions, highlighting this woody species’ potential as a candidate in the rehabilitation of degraded environments.

Impacts of land use changes on the spatiotemporal evolution of groundwater quality in the Yinchuan area, China, based on long-term monitoring data

Agricultural activities and rapid urbanization have significantly impacted groundwater quality, especially in semi-arid and arid regions. This study comprehensively evaluated the quality of phreatic and confined groundwater in the Yinchuan area, China, using long-term monitoring data from 1991 to 2018. Geospatial analysis model was employed to explore the spatiotemporal evolution of groundwater hydrochemistry. The effects of land use changes on groundwater quality were assessed using correlation analysis and a multiple linear regression model (MLR). The findings indicate significant temporal variations in groundwater quality, with phreatic water consistently exhibiting high salinity and hardness. The groundwater quality indices for phreatic water were frequently more polluted than confined water. From 1991 to 2018, the hydrochemical composition of phreatic water evolved from HCO3-Mg and HCO3•SO4-Mg to more complex forms such as HCO3•SO4•Cl-Mg and HCO3•Cl-Mg. In contrast, confined water predominantly maintained its HCO3-Mg type and HCO3•Cl-Na (Na•Mg) type water. Urban land had rapidly expanded in the past three decades, increasing by 318.75% compared to 1991. The water body and urban area diminished the quality of phreatic water. High salt water in increase of TDS, Cl–, SO42–, Mn, TH, NO3–, F–, and Fe into phreatic water. NO3–, NH4+, and F− in phreatic water could be impacted by human and industrial activity in urban areas. This study provides valuable insights for local decision-makers to effectively manage groundwater resources and solve issues of groundwater scarcity and water quality problems in arid and semi-arid locations.

High pressure salt water and low temperature effects on the material performance characteristics of additive manufacturing polymers

The effects of salt water exposure at deep ocean depth pressures when coupled with low temperatures on the material characteristics of three unique additively manufactured polymers has been investigated through a detailed experimental approach. The polymers in the study were manufactured utilizing both Vat Photopolymerization and Material Extrusion printing techniques. The Material Extrusion process was utilized to produce material specimens of Stratasys ULTEM 9085 and Markforged Onyx while the Vat Photopolymerization process was used to produce specimens of Accura ClearVue. The ULTEM 9085 and Markforged Onyx are filament based polymers and the ClearVue is a liquid based resin. The specimens were first submerged in a high pressure, salt water bath of 3.5% NaCl solution at 34.5 MPa (5000 lb/in2) for a total exposure time of 60 days to determine the water absorption characteristics. Subsequent to the salt water exposure at high pressure, the specimens were evaluated to determine changes in tension, compression, flexure, and in-plane fracture properties. To determine the effects of water saturation and low temperature coupling, the mechanical testing was performed at temperatures of 20 °C, 0 °C and −20 °C in both dry and saturated conditions. Additionally, non-destructive testing in the form of TeraHertz and FIRT imaging was conducted to analyze the physical material changes through the thickness of the material due to the saline water absorption. To quantify the change in material storage and loss moduli properties, Dynamic Mechanical Analysis (DMA) characterization was performed on each of the AM polymers in dry and saturated states. The DMA testing also quantified changes in the Glass Transition Temperature because of salt water exposure. In summary, The current study investigates the effects of coupled long term/high pressure salt water exposure with low temperatures on the mechanical and material characteristics of three unique AM polymers by: (1) immersing the materials in a salt water solution at 34.5 MPa for 60 days, (2) Conducting post exposure mechanical testing on the materials at 0 °C and −20 °C with comparisons to 20 °C testing on dry specimens, and quantifies changes in material properties through DMA experiments. The results from all testing in the study show that high pressure salt water exposure when coupled with low temperatures has unique effects on each of the materials considered in the study and careful consideration to each parameter must be given based on the material type when components will be employed in marine operations.

Desalination of Seawater, Synthetic Saline Irrigation Water and Produced Water Using Nano Zero Valent Metals: Results from a Pilot-Scale Desalination System

Two pilot-scale desalination systems employing carbon modified nano-sized, zero valent metals (n-ZVMs) were manufactured and tested to determine (1) the degree to which high-salt water (20 to 130 mS) could be desalinated and (2) if this degree of desalination could be maintained throughout an extended treatment period. The two pilot systems (referred to as Generation 1 and Generation 2) consisted of parallel lines of four individual reactors in series, a settling tank and an activated carbon cell at the end of each reactor line. The system capacity was 300 gal in Generation 1 and 600 gal in Generation 2 with a total hydraulic residence time of 6 h per reactor line (one hour per cell/tank). A slurry of n-ZVMs manufactured from mixtures of ferrous sulfate and green or black tea extract was introduced in the first reactor on each line to yield approximately 5 to 45 g of nano metal per 100 L of influent salt water based on dosing experiments required to achieve maximum salt removal at each of the three influent salt contents used, 28 mS, 44 mS and 123 mS. Once dosing was set, continuous runs (14 days, 23 days and 9 days) were carried out. The results demonstrated that maximum removal occurred with 10 g/100 L of salt for the 30 mS salt solution, 16 g/100 L of salt for the 40 mS influent water and 40 g/100 L for the 130 mS influent. Salt removal (expressed as Na+ and Cl− removed) approached 78% for the 30 mS influent and 41 mS influent, respectively, while removal for the highest concentration salt influent (130 mS) approached 81%. Continuous operation over the extended time-period showed no significant decrease in salt removal with a typical day to day variation of no more than 10%, suggesting that this approach to desalination could rapidly provide usable water from saline aquifers, seawater or even produced water.

Analysis of Economic Benefits of Using Deep Geological Storage Technology to Treat High-Salinity Brine in Coal Mines

Some provinces in China require zero discharge of coal mine wastewater, with a focus on the disposal of high-salt water, because evaporation ponds have been completely banned. Deep geological storage (DGS) technology is a novel geological environment solution that uses rock pores and microfissures within deep strata for safely storing liquid or gas to avoid its environmental impact on the biosphere. The author and his research team were the first to put forward the research idea of using DGS technology to dispose of high-salinity brine in coal mines in China and performed related research. Taking a coal mine in the south of Ordos Basin as an example, this study designed a conventional, mine-specific, zero-discharge water treatment process route based on a evaporation–crystallization process. This strategy was tailored to the unique water inflow conditions of the mine. Furthermore, the technical and economic efficiencies were assessed for the generation and treatment scenarios of a four-stage highly concentrated brine solution. In addition, the comparative analysis of the economic prospects of using DGS technology to treat high-salinity brine revealed that combining DGS with post-conventional treatment in secondary reverse osmosis, whose flow quality is 481 m3/h and TDS is 24,532.66 mg/L, can maximize the economic benefits. This integration heightened water resource utilization while maintaining a cost-effective, comprehensive water treatment approach. These results provide a valuable reference value for the future zero-discharge treatment of coal mine water.

Effects of Typhoon Chanthu on Marine Chlorophyll a, Temperature and Salinity

A typhoon is a severe weather process in tropical oceans. Typhoon transit is often accompanied by strong convective weather, such as gales and rainstorms, which threatens fishery, property, and human safety. In this study, the effects of typhoon Chanthu on chlorophyll a (Chl a), temperature, and ocean surface salinity are analyzed using remote sensing data. The results illustrate that before the transit of Chanthu (6–12 September), the mean concentration of Chl a and sea surface salinity (SSS) are low (0.74 mg/m3, 30.59 psu, respectively), while the mean sea surface temperature (SST) is high (29.01 °C). After the typhoon transits (13–30 September), the mean Chl a concentration and salinity increase (1.29 mg/m3, 30.87 psu respectively), while the mean SST decrease (27.43 °C). The Ekman pumping transports nutrients from the deep ocean to the surface layer, promotes the photosynthesis of surface phytoplankton, and increases the concentration of sea surface Chl a. Typhoon Chanthu causes the mixing and entrainment of the upper ocean, which causes the deep cold water of the ocean to rise into the mixed layer and cause the SST to decrease. Severe vertical mixing transports deep high-salt water to the surface, causing SSS to rise. The results of this study have important scientific significance and application value for developing coastal economy, aquaculture, and fishery.

Research on environmental management of domestic wasteincineration fly ash and high salt water discharge into the sea

In our comprehensive management proposal for fly ash washing wastewater discharge into the sea, we establishstringent control measures across four categories: general elements, nutrients, heavy metals, and organic pollutants. Ourapproach is rooted in respect for and compliance with national and international pollution control standards. We definethe acceptable parameters for pH, salinity, and the content of Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD), suspended solids, totalnitrogen, ammonia nitrogen, phosphates, various heavy metals, and organic pollutants. Our plan includes thoroughlytreating wastewater, emphasizing the removal of lead, desalination, effective precipitation, and filtering processes beforethe wastewater is discharged into the sea. We advocate for constant surveillance and stringent management practicesto maintain a healthy marine ecosystem. Moreover, we acknowledge the need for additional biological testing in actualwork to more scientifically and comprehensively understand the potential impact of the discharged wastewater onmarine ecology. Our overall goal is to ensure that the potential environmental effects of fly ash washing wastewater areminimized while adhering to the highest environmental management standards.

Oriented porous hydrogel with excellent anti-salt and antibacterial properties for high-performance interfacial solar steam generation

In recent years, solar interfacial evaporation has drawn substantial attention in wastewater and seawater treatment, but it still requires intensive development in high-performance evaporators, particularly simultaneous with high anti-salt and antibacterial abilities to supply freshwater. In this work, a directionally channeled evaporator with excellent resistance to salt crystallization and microbial was designed and synthesized by using silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) / polydopamine (PDA) hydrogel via a simple freeze-dried method. The novel structure was proposed to enhance convection and accelerate water transport that prevents salt crystallization. PDA and AgNPs were deposited to achieve superb optical absorption, photothermal conversion and anti-biofouling ability. Therefore, the evaporation rate of the AgNPs-PDA hydrogel achieved 1.70 kg m−2 h−1 with a light-to-heat conversion efficiency of 90.3 %. Based on the efficient evaporation ability and especially structure of the AgNPs-PDA hydrogel, the evaporator presented a tolerance to high salt water and the stable evaporation performance of actual seawater evaporation during long-time application. Simultaneously, the addition of AgNPs endowed the AgNPs-PDA hydrogel evaporator with excellent antibacterial ability. Thus, these favorable properties endowed the special AgNPs-PDA hydrogel evaporator a great potential for obtaining efficient evaporation and simultaneously solving the fouling problem, especially to waterborne pathogens and salt crystallization in tanglesome applications.

Adenosine A2A Receptor Regulates microRNA-181b Expression in Aorta: Therapeutic Implications for Large-Artery Stiffness.

Background The identification of large-artery stiffness as a major, independent risk factor for cardiovascular disease-associated morbidity and death has focused attention on identifying therapeutic strategies to combat this disorder. Genetic manipulations that delete or inactivate the translin/trax microRNA-degrading enzyme confer protection against aortic stiffness induced by chronic ingestion of high-salt water (4%NaCl in drinking water for 3 weeks) or associated with aging. Therefore, there is heightened interest in identifying interventions capable of inhibiting translin/trax RNase activity, as these may have therapeutic efficacy in large-artery stiffness. Methods and Results Activation of neuronal adenosine A2A receptors (A2ARs) triggers dissociation of trax from its C-terminus. As A2ARs are expressed by vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs), we investigated whether stimulation of A2AR on vascular smooth muscle cells promotes the association of translin with trax and, thereby increases translin/trax complex activity. We found that treatment of A7r5 cells with the A2AR agonist CGS21680 leads to increased association of trax with translin. Furthermore, this treatment decreases levels of pre-microRNA-181b, a target of translin/trax, and those of its downstream product, mature microRNA-181b. To check whether A2AR activation might contribute to high-salt water-induced aortic stiffening, we assessed the impact of daily treatment with the selective A2AR antagonist SCH58261 in this paradigm. We found that this treatment blocked aortic stiffening induced by high-salt water. Further, we confirmed that the age-associated decline in aortic pre-microRNA-181b/microRNA-181b levels observed in mice also occurs in humans. Conclusions These findings suggest that further studies are warranted to evaluate whether blockade of A2ARs may have therapeutic potential in treating large-artery stiffness.

Highly permeable polyamide-holey graphene oxide composite membrane prepared by pressure spray interface polymerization for desalination

The rise of reverse osmosis membranes (RO) has attracted significant attention, which is pivotal to addressing the water shortage. Superior permeability and high selectivity are extremely critical criteria for RO membranes. Therefore, in this study, we reported a novel strategy: pressure spray interface polymerization (PSIP) to prepare ultrathin RO composite membranes. In the approach, besides the developed novel technique, highly permeable holey graphene oxide (HGO) containing nanopores was also used to refine the size of the transport nanochannels during the reaction of m-phenylenediamine (MPD) and the trimethyl chloride (TMC). Meanwhile, the electrostatic interaction between the HGO and MPD provided a solid guarantee for good dispersion in the composite membrane. The resultant pressure spray interface polymerization-highly permeable holey graphene oxide (PSIP-HGO) composite membrane displayed high salt rejection and water permeance, which showed high water permeance of 4.0 Lm−2h−1bar−1 and Na2SO4 rejection of 95% in a concentration of 2000 ppm under 5 bar. Moreover, the PSIP-HGO membrane showed outstanding long-term stability and high chemical stability. Therefore, our work may provide a feasible pathway for designing advanced RO membranes for water desalination.

Effect of high pressure salt water absorption on the mechanical characteristics of additively manufactured polymers

An experimental study has been performed to investigate the coupled effects of hydrostatic deep depth pressure and sustained salt-water immersion on the mechanical properties and material structure of additively manufactured (AM) polymer based materials. The materials that were evaluated in the study were produced by both the material extrusion and vat photopolymerization printing methods. The material extrusion materials consisted of Stratasys ULTEM 9085 and Markforged Onyx and the vat photopolymerization material was Accura ClearVue resin. Water immersion was conducted with 3.5% NaCl solution at room temperature under a pressure of 34.5 MPa in a novel test facility for long duration, high pressure water saturation. The respective materials were characterized in three conditions: (1) baseline with no water saturation, (2) 30 day water immersion, and (3) 60 day water immersion. The change in mechanical properties as a function of aging time was quantified through controlled laboratory testing, namely tension, compression, flexure, and in-plane fracture toughness. Additionally, a microscopic evaluation was performed to evaluate the physical material degradation between layer bonding due to the saline water absorption. The significant findings of the study highlight that salt water immersion has differing effects on additively manufactured materials based on the material composition of the base material and thus significant consideration must be given to material selection in marine environments.

Selective anion sensing in high salt water via a remote indicator displacement assay.

Water-soluble deep cavitands with cationic functions at the lower rim can selectively bind iodide anions in purely aqueous solution. By pairing this lower rim recognition with an indicator dye that is bound in the host cavity, optical sensing of anions is possible. The selectivity for iodide is high enough that micromolar concentrations of iodide can be detected in the presence of molar chloride. Iodide binding at the "remote" lower rim causes a conformational change in the host, displacing the bound dye from the cavity and effecting a fluorescence response. The sensing is sensitive, selective, and works in complex environments, so will be important for optical anion detection in biorelevant media.

Solar reduced graphene oxide decorated with manganese dioxide nanostructures for brackish water desalination using asymmetric capacitive deionization.

Capacitive deionization (CDI) has emerged as a low-cost, reagent-free technique for the desalination of water. This technique is based on the immobilization of dissolved ions on the electrically charged electrodes, by the electrosorption phenomenon. The electrosorption of dissolved ions by using CDI is limited for feed water having a low concentration of salts. To address this problem, we employ an asymmetric capacitive deionization (Asy-CDI) architecture having solar reduced graphene oxide decorated with manganese dioxide nanostructures (SRGO-MnO2 composite). The Asy-CDI possesses an SRGO-MnO2 composite as the cathode and SRGO as the anode with an anion exchange membrane. The cathode formed from the SRGO-MnO2 composite serves the purpose of immobilization of cations, whereas the anode formed from SRGO is responsible for anion removal. The crystal structure, chemical composition and morphology of the as-synthesized SRGO-MnO2 composite electrode materials are characterized by several techniques, confirming that the surface of SRGO is successfully loaded with α-MnO2 nanostructures. The electrochemical characterization reveals a high specific capacitance of the as-synthesized SRGO-MnO2 composite (419.9 F g-1) at 100 mV s-1. The Asy-CDI provides a higher salt adsorption capacity (40.2 mg g-1) compared to Sy-CDI (28.3 mg g-1) with feed water containing a salt concentration of 2000 mg L-1. These results indicate that the Asy-CDI may be employed as an efficient technique for the desalination of high concentration salt water.

Lamellar carbon nitride membrane for enhanced ion sieving and water desalination

Membrane-based water treatment processes offer possibility to alleviate the water scarcity dilemma in energy-efficient and sustainable ways, this has been exemplified in filtration membranes assembled from two-dimensional (2D) materials for water desalination purposes. Most representatives however tend to swell or disintegrate in a hydrated state, making precise ionic or molecular sieving a tough challenge. Here we report that the chemically robust 2D carbon nitride can be activated using aluminum polycations as pillars to modulate the interlayer spacing of the conjugated framework, the noncovalent interaction concomitantly affords a well-interlinked lamellar structure, to be carefully distinguished from random stacking patterns in conventional carbon nitride membranes. The conformally packed membrane is characterized by adaptive subnanochannel and structure integrity to allow excellent swelling resistance, and breaks permeability-selectivity trade-off limit in forward osmosis due to progressively regulated transport passage, achieving high salt rejection (>99.5%) and water flux (6 L m−2 h−1), along with tunable permeation behavior that enables water gating in acidic and alkaline environments. These findings position carbon nitride a rising building block to functionally expand the 2D membrane library for applications in water desalination and purification scenarios.

Hierarchical MXene/Polypyrrole-Decorated Carbon Nanofibers for Asymmetrical Capacitive Deionization

Membrane capacitive deionization (MCDI) has emerged as a promising electric-field-driven technology for brackish water desalination and specific salt or charged ion separation. The use of carbon-based or pseudocapacitive materials alone for MCDI usually suffers from the drawbacks of low desalination capacity and poor cycling stability due to their limited accessible adsorption sites and obstructed charge-carrier diffusion pathways. Therefore, developing a hybrid electrode material with multiple charge storage mechanisms and continuous electron/ion transport pathways that can synergistically improve its specific capacitance and cycling durability has currently become one of the most critical technical demands. Herein, we developed a novel hierarchically architectured hybrid electrode by first spinning MXene into polyacrylonitrile (PAN)-based carbon nanofibers (MCNFs) to obtain a highly conductive carbon nanocomposite framework. The excellent spatial support structure can effectively prevent the dense packing of Cl-- and DBS--doped polypyrrole (PPy) molecular chains during the following electrodeposition process, which not only ensures the efficient transport of electrons in the continuous hybrid carbon nanofibrous skeleton but also provides abundant accessible sites for ion adsorption and insertion. The obtained self-supporting membrane electrodes (MCNF@PPy+Cl- and MCNF@PPy+DBS-) have the advantages of outstanding specific capacitance (318.4 and 153.9 F/g, respectively), low charge transfer resistance (10.0 and 5.3 Ω, respectively), and excellent cycling performance (78% and 90% capacitance retention ratios, respectively, after 250 electrochemical cycles). Furthermore, the asymmetrical membrane electrodes showed a superior desalination capacity of 91.2 mg g-1 in 500 mg/L NaCl aqueous solution and obvious divalent ion (Ca2+, Mg2+) selective adsorption properties in high-salt water from the cooling towers of thermal power plants.

Subsurface groundwater aquifer mapping and quality characterization in Matiari district, Sindh, Pakistan.

Groundwater, is an alternative resource, is used as a supplement for irrigation as well as drinking purposes in Pakistan. This paper aims to determine the quantum and quality of groundwater in Matiari district of Sindh, Pakistan, through Electrical Resistivity Survey (ERS). The ERS was conducted at 52 location points using the ABEM Terrameter SAS 4000. The quantity of good quality groundwater has also been evaluated with ArcGIS interpolation techniques, i.e., the maximum percentage of fresh groundwater is 34% the marginal fresh groundwater 43% at the depth of with few patches of saline groundwater aquifers. Moreover, at 50-m depth, the percentage of fresh groundwater reduces to 21% and the marginal has increased to 48%. However, groundwater below the depth from 50 to 100m was found only 8% fresh groundwater, 29% marginal, 49% salt water, and 14% high salt water. Analysis of groundwater samples for quality showed a good agreement with the quality obtained from VES results. In addition, a socio-economic survey of 55 tube well owners were conducted through interviews related to groundwater suitability and usage. According to the survey, about 62% of respondents are using good quality groundwater; however, 36% consuming the marginal and the remaining 2% are utilizing the hazardous quality of groundwater. The consumer satisfaction survey showed most farmers (89%) were satisfied with the groundwater usage, while 11% were unsatisfied due to poor-quality groundwater. The crop productivity could be enhanced through awareness and conjunctive use of marginal quality groundwater with the canal water.

Elucidating the Effect of Aliphatic Molecular Plugs on Ion-Rejecting Properties of Polyamide Membranes.

Polyamide RO membranes are widely used for seawater desalination owing to their high salt rejection and water permeability; however, improved selectivity-permeability trade-off is still desired. "Molecular plugs," small molecules immobilized within the polyamide structure, offer an attractive approach; however, their overall effect on polyamide physicochemical properties poses many questions. Here, we analyze the effect of decylamine, a promising plug, and a few charged and uncharged mimics on polyamide films using several in situ techniques. Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) reveals a complex pH-dependent response, whereby, upon exposure to amine solution, conductivity first rapidly drops; however, under alkaline conditions, when amine is uncharged, the trend subsequently slowly reverses, and conductivity increases. This slow reversal was observed for noncharged alcohols of similar size as well, but not for larger surfactant molecules. The reversal was assigned to the uptake of plug molecules within polyamide, as opposed to the fast initial drop assigned to surface adsorption. EIS and quartz-crystal microbalance (QCM) results showed that exposure to decylamine under alkaline conditions ultimately led to an irreversible decrease in conductivity, that is, stronger ion rejection, remaining after re-exposure of polyamide to amine-free buffer. This suggests that plug uptake within polyamide resulted in polymer stress, indeed observed in surface stress measurements, and subsequent relaxation. The results indicate that the moderate size of decylamine and conditions minimizing its charge were optimal for irreversible change; however, charge interactions helped maximize its binding within polymer and induce the desired sustained change in selectivity. The results have many potential implications for improving current membrane desalination technology and increasing inherent membrane selectivity toward hard-to-remove species.

Temporal reverse osmotic salt filtration mechanism of multi-layered porous graphene

Reverse osmosis (RO) technology is currently the most progressive, energy-saving and efficient membrane separation technology . Meanwhile, graphene becomes a promising candidate for fabricating the RO membranes in water desalination due to its high salt rejection and water flux. The concept of “temporal selectivity” is first proposed in our previous work in terms of the time difference between the penetration time of an ion passing through the pore and the tangential slipping time for the ion sliding across the pore. Nevertheless, the temporal selectivity mechanism of multilayered graphene membrane remains ambiguous. In this paper, the RO process of saltwater through porous graphene column RO membrane is studied by using molecular dynamics (MD) simulations method, and the effects of rotating angular velocity and the thickness of RO membrane on desalination performance of seawater are considered first. The MD results show that the salt rejection increases with the rotation speed of porous membrane increasing while the water flux initially increases and then decreases . Meanwhile, the interfacial slip velocity increases linearly with angular velocity increasing. On the other hand, the increasing thickness of porous graphene membrane can enhance the selectivity and reduce the permeability of water molecules. As expected, the tri-layered porous graphene RO membrane can achieve high salt rejection at low interfacial slip velocity. In order to ensure high selectivity and energy conservation and efficient, the pore structure of the porous graphene RO membrane is optimized. The results show that the optimized nanopores can increase the water flux significantly, whereas the salt rejection is not changed appreciably. It is found that the pore size of the innermost layer membrane near the feed region has the most significant effect on the water flux. The water flux increases sharply with the increase of pore diameter and the salt rejection remains totally higher than 80%. Moreover, the RO membrane with a special Type 3 structure exhibits excellent performance in seawater desalination, specifically, the ultrahigh water flux reaches 20029 L·cm<sup>–2</sup>·d<sup>–1</sup> and the super salt rejection arrives at 94%. The research results further clarify and verify the mechanism of the temporal selectivity in RO process, and improve the water flux under the condition of the same membrane thickness by designing gradient hole. The findings can conduce to the in-depth theoretical understanding of porous graphene-based membranes and designing and developing the large-scale seawater desalination devices and water filtration equipment.

Carbon Based Electrode Materials and their Architectures for Capacitive Deionization

The effective desalination and purification devices for seawater/ brackish water treatment are crucial in sustainable progress. Techniques that render high salt removal efficiency and water purification ability at low applied potentials play a central role in sustainable water supplies. One of them is capacitive deionization (CDI) which has drawn significant consideration as a promising deionization technology since the last decade. Desalination efficiency profoundly depends on the utilized electrode material. The most widely used CDI electrodes are carbons due to their cost effectiveness and good stability. However, to acquire high electrosorption capacity, extensive researches are reported with modified carbon materials. CDI cell architectures are equally important for practical high salt removal performance. This review focuses on carbon materials in CDI along with other emerging trends in diverse carbon types, e.g., carbon nanotubes and their composites. Various architectures reported in the literature to improve desalination efficiency are also included here.

A meta-analytical evaluation of the effects of high-salt water intake on beef cattle.

Adequate drinking water is essential to maintain acceptable production levels in beef cattle operations. In the context of global climate change, the water scarcity forecasted for the future is a growing concern and it would determine an increase in the use of poorer quality water by the agricultural sector in many parts of the world. However, consumption of high-salt water by cattle has consequences often overlooked. A meta-analysis was carried out to assess the impact of utilizing high-salt water on dry matter (DMI) and water intake (WI), and performance in beef cattle. The dataset was collected from 25 studies, which were conducted between 1960 and 2020. Within the dataset, the water quality was divided into three categories according to the ratio of sulfates (SO4) or sodium chloride (NaCl) to total dissolved solids (TDS): 1) TDS = all studies included (average SO4:TDS = 0.4); 2) NaCl = considered studies in which water salinity was dominated by NaCl (average SO4:TDS = 0.1); and 3) SO4 = considered studies in which water salinity was dominated by SO4 (average SO4:TDS = 0.8). Results showed that DMI and WI were negatively affected by high-salt water consumption, although the magnitude of the effect is dependent on the type of salt dissolved in the water. There was a quadratic effect (P < 0.01) for the WI vs. TDS, WI vs. NaCl, DMI vs. TDS, and DMI vs. NaCl, and a linear effect (P < 0.01) for WI vs. SO4 and WI vs. SO4. Average daily gain (ADG) and feed efficiency (FE) were quadratically (P < 0.01) affected by high-salt water, respectively. This study revealed significant negative effects of high-salt water drinking on beef cattle WI, DMI, and performance. However, the negative effects are exacerbated when cattle drink high-sulfate water when compared with high-chloride water. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first approach to evaluate animal response to high-salt water consumption and could be included in the development of future beef cattle models to account for the impact of water quality on intake and performance. In addition, this meta-analysis highlights the need for research on management strategies to mitigate the negative effects of high-salt water in cattle.