High Protein Powders Research Articles

Water Effective Diffusion Coefficient in Dairy Powder Calculated by Digital Image Processing and through Machine Learning Algorithms of CLSM Micrographs.

Rehydration of dairy powders is a complex and essential process. A relatively new quantitative mechanism for monitoring powders' rehydration process uses the effective diffusion coefficient. This research focused on modifying a previously used labor-intensive method that will be able to automatically measure the real-time water diffusion coefficient in dairy powders based on confocal microscopy techniques. Furthermore, morphological characteristics and local hydration of individual particles were identified using an imaging analysis procedure written in Matlab©-R2023b and image analysis through machine learning algorithms written in Python™-3.11. The first model includes segmentation into binary images and labeling particles during water diffusion. The second model includes the expansion of data set selection, neural network training and particle markup. For both models, the effective diffusion follows Fick's second law for spherical geometry. The effective diffusion coefficient on each particle was computed from the dye intensity during the rehydration process. The results showed that effective diffusion coefficients for water increased linearly with increasing powder particle size and are in agreement with previously used methods. In summary, the models provide two independent machine measurements of effective diffusion coefficient based on the same set of micrographs and may be useful in a wide variety of high-protein powders.

Improved physical and structural properties of high-protein powders by fluidized-bed agglomeration.

High-protein powders (milk protein isolate (MPI) and soybean protein isolate (SPI)) were treated with maltodextrin solution (10% or 20%) or water as a binder and then subjected to fluidized-bed agglomeration. The MPI agglomerates were compared with the SPI agglomerates as a function of maltodextrin (MD) concentration. The particle size, wettability, and porosity values of SPI agglomerates were much higher than those of the raw powder when compared to the MPI agglomerates. The agglomerated protein powders with MD binder showed significantly higher solubility values than the raw powders. These tendencies were discernible in the morphological examination via SEM analysis. The dynamic modulus values of SPI agglomerates decreased with an increase in MD concentration from 10 to 20% whereas those of MPI agglomerates increased. These findings indicate that the physical, structural, and rheological properties of agglomerated high-protein powders are greatly influenced by the type of protein and the addition of MD binder.

Microstructural Characterization of High-Protein Dairy Powders

Dairy proteins are potential and multipurpose ingredients used to prepare various food products. It exhibits many beneficial functionalities and bioactivities in the processing of food products. All the functionalities of different dairy proteins depend on their peculiar structural characteristics. So, the present study aimed to characterize high-protein powders with different matrices (milk protein concentrate (MPC), rennet casein (RCN), micellar casein concentrate (MCC), whey protein isolate (WPI), and native whey concentrate (NWC)) for their composition, handling, and reconstitution properties, and microstructure and compared them with whole milk powder (WMP) and skim milk powder (SMP). The bulk density of the high-protein powders was significantly (p < 0.05) lower than WMP and NFDM. Due to the low bulk density of the high-protein powders, the wettability of these powders in the water was very high. Microstructural analysis of powders by scanning electron microscopy reveals that the high-protein powder had tetrahedron-to-polyhedron-shaped particles depending on the protein level. The idea regarding the powder’s morphology might be helpful for further improvement in the production processes to modify the functional properties of high-protein milk powders.

Effect of milk protein standardization using high milk protein ingredients on texture, composition and yield of paneer

The study was aimed to prepare good quality paneer in sensory and textural attributes with greater yield by inclusion of high protein powders to the milk. Paneer samples were prepared from buffalo milk, after standardization of protein:fat ratio (w/w) to 0.68 with addition of skimmed milk powder (SMP), milk protein concentrate 60 (MPC60) and sodium caseinate (NaCas). These paneer samples along with control paneer were analysed for yield, protein loss in whey, composition, microstructure, sensory and texture profile. All the paneer samples reported a significant increase in yield, the order being MPC60 (28%) > SMP (26 %) ≈ NaCas (26 %) > Control (18 %). Paneer manufactured using SMP and NaCas had hardest and softest body due to lowest and highest moisture retention, respectively. Paneer samples manufactured with MPC60 had highest protein content (33 %) due to lowest protein loss in whey. Sensory analysis revealed that paneer manufactured with MPC60 was best amongst all the samples with superior sensory attributes and highest overall acceptability. Texture profile analysis and microstructure evaluation revealed the differences in textural properties of paneer samples prepared using protein powders with control paneer. Good quality paneer with higher yield comparable to conventional can be prepared by standardization of protein:fat ratio to 0.68 with addition of MPC60.

Macronutrients, Amino and Fatty Acid Composition, Elements, and Toxins in High-Protein Powders of Crickets, Arthrospira, Single Cell Protein, Potato, and Rice as Potential Ingredients in Fermented Food Products

Due to the increasing global population and climate change, new sustainable food sources are being intensively sought to replace less favorable livestock production. Especially new protein sources and their food applications are being focused on. In this paper, several selected protein sources that may have potential application in future functional foods, such as fermented foods, were examined and compared. These sources include single cell protein (SCP), Arthrospira platensis (Algae), Acheta domesticus (edible insect), potato, and rice protein. The above sources were compared to whey proteins. The parameters studied were total nutritional value, amino acid profile, fatty acid profile, the content of some elements, and the presence of toxins.

Effect of Storage of Skim Milk Powder, Nonfat Dry Milk and Milk Protein Concentrate on Functional Properties

The physicochemical changes during the storage of high protein powders, such as skim milk powder (SMP), nonfat dry milk (NDM), and milk protein concentrates (MPC), can result in a variation in the functional properties of the powders. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effects of the storage of various milk powders (SMP, NDM, MPC40, and MPC70) on their functional properties. Three different lots of the powders were collected from US manufacturers and were analyzed for functional properties after 3, 9, and 15 months of storage at 25 °C. Additionally, this study also evaluated the effects of seasonal variation on the functionality of SMP and NDM. Functional properties, such as solubility, emulsification ability index (EAI), foaming, and surface hydrophobicity index (SHI), were evaluated at each storage time point. The solubility of MPC70 and the foam overrun of SMP, MPC40, and MPC70 decreased significantly (p < 0.05) with an increase in the storage time. The emulsification properties of MPC70 were significantly higher than other powders. Except for foam drainage, there was no effect of the season on the SMP and NDM functional properties. The storage of milk powders has an impact on some functional properties, and a proper selection of powders based on end-use is recommended.

Functional characterisation of buffalo milk protein co‐precipitate

Buffalo milk protein co‐precipitates (BMPC) were prepared using disodium hydrogen phosphate (DSP) and trisodium citrate (TSC) and were evaluated for their techno‐functional properties. Buffalo milk protein co‐precipitates have superior wettability and wider particle size distribution leading to better flowability against conventional high protein powders. Emulsifying properties of BMPC were better than milk protein concentrates (MPC), whereas foaming properties were similar to buffalo MPC60. Buffalo milk protein co‐precipitates prepared with TSC had significantly higher bulk density, dispersibility, solubility, and lower heat stability than BMPC prepared with DSP.

The Effect of High Protein Powder Structure on Hydration, Glass Transition, Water Sorption, and Thermomechanical Properties.

Poor solubility of high protein milk powders can be an issue during the production of nutritional formulations, as well as for end-users. One possible way to improve powder solubility is through the creation of vacuoles and pores in the particle structure using high pressure gas injection during spray drying. The aim of this study was to determine whether changes in particle morphology effect physical properties, such as hydration, water sorption, structural strength, glass transition temperature, and α-relaxation temperatures. Four milk protein concentrate powders (MPC, 80%, w/w, protein) were produced, i.e., regular (R) and agglomerated (A) without nitrogen injection and regular (RN) and agglomerated (AN) with nitrogen injection. Electron microscopy confirmed that nitrogen injection increased powder particles’ sphericity and created fractured structures with pores in both regular and agglomerated systems. Environmental scanning electron microscopy (ESEM) showed that nitrogen injection enhanced the moisture uptake and solubility properties of RN and AN as compared with non-nitrogen-injected powders (R and A). In particular, at the final swelling at over 100% relative humidity (RH), R, A, AN, and RN powders showed an increase in particle size of 25, 20, 40, and 97% respectively. The injection of nitrogen gas (NI) did not influence calorimetric glass transition temperature (Tg), which could be expected as there was no change to the powder composition, however, the agglomeration of powders did effect Tg. Interestingly, the creation of porous powder particles by NI did alter the α-relaxation temperatures (up to ~16 °C difference between R and AN powders at 44% RH) and the structural strength (up to ~11 °C difference between R and AN powders at 44% RH). The results of this study provide an in-depth understanding of the changes in the morphology and physical-mechanical properties of nitrogen gas-injected MPC powders.

Effect of pH and heat treatment conditions on physicochemical and acid gelation properties of liquid milk protein concentrate

Milk protein concentrates (MPC) are typically dried high-protein powders with functional and nutritional properties that can be tailored through modification of processing conditions, including temperature, pH, filtration, and drying. However, the effects of processing conditions on the structure-function properties of liquid MPC (fluid ultrafiltered milk), specifically, are understudied. In this report, the pH of liquid MPC [13% protein (70% protein DM basis), pH 6.7] was adjusted to 6.5 or 6.9, and samples at pH 6.5, 6.7, and 6.9 were subjected to heat treatment at either 85°C for 5 min or 125°C for 15 s. Sodium dodecyl sulfate PAGE was used to determine the distribution of caseins and denatured whey proteins in the soluble and micellar phases, and HPLC was used to quantify native whey proteins as a measure of denaturation, based on the processing conditions. Both heat treatments resulted in substantial whey protein denaturation at each pH, with β-lactoglobulin denatured more extensively than α-lactalbumin. Changes in liquid MPC physicochemical properties were monitored at d 1, 5, and 8 during storage at 4°C. Viscosity increased after heat treatment and also over time, regardless of pH and heating conditions, suggesting the role of whey protein denaturation and aggregation, and their interactions with casein micelles. The MPC samples processed at pH 6.9 had a significantly higher viscosity than those heated at pH 6.5 or 6.7, for both temperature and time conditions; and samples processed at 85°C for 5 min had higher viscosity than those heated at 125°C for 15 s. Particle size analysis indicated the presence of larger particles after 5 and 8 d of MPC storage after heating at pH 6.9. Acid-induced gelation of the liquid MPC led to significantly higher gel firmness after processing at 85°C for 5 min, compared with 125°C for 15 s. Also, gels made from MPC adjusted to pH 6.5 had higher storage moduli, with both time and temperature combinations, demonstrating the role of pH-dependent association of denatured whey proteins with casein micelles in gel network formation. These findings enable a better understanding of the processing factors contributing to structural and functional properties of liquid MPC and can be helpful in tailoring milk protein ingredient functionality for a variety of food products.

Monitoring the microbiome for food safety and quality using deep shotgun sequencing

In this work, we hypothesized that shifts in the food microbiome can be used as an indicator of unexpected contaminants or environmental changes. To test this hypothesis, we sequenced the total RNA of 31 high protein powder (HPP) samples of poultry meal pet food ingredients. We developed a microbiome analysis pipeline employing a key eukaryotic matrix filtering step that improved microbe detection specificity to >99.96% during in silico validation. The pipeline identified 119 microbial genera per HPP sample on average with 65 genera present in all samples. The most abundant of these were Bacteroides, Clostridium, Lactococcus, Aeromonas, and Citrobacter. We also observed shifts in the microbial community corresponding to ingredient composition differences. When comparing culture-based results for Salmonella with total RNA sequencing, we found that Salmonella growth did not correlate with multiple sequence analyses. We conclude that microbiome sequencing is useful to characterize complex food microbial communities, while additional work is required for predicting specific species’ viability from total RNA sequencing.

Formulation of functional energy bars using dairy and non-dairy ingredients: A review

Bars are compact, energy-rich, composite food in which cereals are present in major amounts. Apart from meal replacers, energy bars can be used as a dense and portable source of carbohydrates. Bars are classified as ready-to-eat formulations which are usually based on whole cereal grains, seeds, plants (non-dairy ingredients) and certain animal-based products such as dairy ingredients. An energy bar (45- 80 g) generally contains 3-9 g fat, 7-15 g protein, and 20-40 g carbohydrates that can supply about 200-300 kcal (840–1,300 kJ) energy. Skim milk powder and high protein powders such as milk protein concentrate and milk protein isolate can also act as a suitable ingredient of bars. A number of food constitutes with proven functionality can be added in bars to improve their nutritional potential to cater the need of different consumer segments. By appropriate ingredient selection and efficient processing interventions, low cost energy bars can be developed. However, further research is necessary to find the potential of plant by-products in bars to minimize nutrient wastage and to maintain the production economy.

Food authentication from shotgun sequencing reads with an application on high protein powders

Here we propose that using shotgun sequencing to examine food leads to accurate authentication of ingredients and detection of contaminants. To demonstrate this, we developed a bioinformatic pipeline, FASER (Food Authentication from SEquencing Reads), designed to resolve the relative composition of mixtures of eukaryotic species using RNA or DNA sequencing. Our comprehensive database includes >6000 plants and animals that may be present in food. FASER accurately identified eukaryotic species with 0.4% median absolute difference between observed and expected proportions on sequence data from various sources including sausage meat, plants, and fish. FASER was applied to 31 high protein powder raw factory ingredient total RNA samples. The samples mostly contained the expected source ingredient, chicken, while three samples unexpectedly contained pork and beef. Our results demonstrate that DNA/RNA sequencing of food ingredients, combined with a robust analysis, can be used to find contaminants and authenticate food ingredients in a single assay.

Water sorption and hydration in spray-dried milk protein powders: Selected physicochemical properties

Low and high protein dairy powders are prone to caking and sticking and can also be highly insoluble; with powder storage conditions an important factor responsible for such issues. The aim of this study focused on the bulk and surface properties of anhydrous and humidified spray-dried milk protein concentrate (MPC) powders (protein content ~40, 50, 60, 70 or 80%, w/w). Water sorption isotherms, polarized light and scanning electron micrographs showed crystallized lactose in low protein powders at high water activities. High protein systems demonstrated increased bulk diffusion coefficients compared to low protein systems. Glass transition temperatures, α-relaxation temperatures and structural strength significantly decreased with water uptake. CLSM measurements showed that humidified systems have slower real time water diffusion compared to anhydrous systems. Overall, the rate of water diffusion was higher for low protein powders but high protein powders absorbed higher levels of water under high humidity conditions.

Defatted fiber produced from lemon Basil (Ocimum citriodorum Vis.) seed with supercritical CO2: Economic analysis

The feasibility study is important for ensuring the profitable of the production process. This study employs economic analysis of chemical-free processing of lemon basil seed to evaluate the viability of production. Lemon basil seed was cracked before extracted by supercritical carbon dioxide. The uniformed mucilage powder was obtained by milling and sieving. Three products, ∼75% defatted fiber, ∼15% basil seed (Omega-3 rich) oil, and ∼10% of high protein powder, were obtained from this process. Mass and energy balances were obtained from the experiments in the 25-L extractor, and these results were used to apply analysis to 50- and 100-L extractors. The results indicated that 50- and 100-L plants were both profitable. Sensitivity analysis was employed to indicate that the 25-L plant could be practical if the selling price of defatted fiber increased from $22,850 to $27,477/ton. The project feasibility was also found to be partially dictated by the price of basil seed as well. For example, the 50-L plant fell below profitability when the price of basil seed increased from $5150 to $6,517/ton.

Effects of protein from cod fillet and residual raw material on lipid metabolism in healthy adults

Rationale: Fish consumption is associated with beneficial health effects, but there is still little knowledge on whether consuming different parts of the fish provides comparable or different benefits. New process technology allows fishing vessels to utilize residuals from cod fillet production (head, bone, skin and entrails) and convert this to a high-protein powder for human consumption. The current study investigated effects on serum markers of lipid metabolism in healthy adults consuming proteins from cod fillet or cod residual raw material.

The effect of spray drying on the difference in flavor and functional properties of liquid and dried whey proteins, milk proteins, and micellar casein concentrates

Traditionally most protein ingredients are sold as a powder due to transport ease and longer shelf life. Many high-protein powder ingredients such as milk protein concentrate with 85% protein and micellar casein concentrate have poor rehydration properties (e.g., solubility) after storage, which might limit their use. An alternative to the production of dried protein ingredients is the option to use liquid protein ingredients, which saves the cost of spray drying, but may also improve flavor and offer different functional properties. The objective of this study was to determine the effect of spray drying on the flavor and functionality of high-protein ingredients. Liquid and dried protein ingredients (whey protein concentrate with 80% protein, whey protein isolate, milk protein concentrate with 85% protein, and micellar casein concentrate) were manufactured from the same lot of milk at the North Carolina State University pilot plant. Functional differences were evaluated by measurement of foam stability and heat stability. Heat stability was evaluated by heating at 90°C for 0, 10, 20, and 30 min followed by micro-bicinchoninic acid and turbidity loss measurements. Sensory properties were evaluated by descriptive analysis, and volatile compounds were evaluated by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. No differences were detected in protein heat stability between liquids and powders when spray dried under these conditions. Whey protein concentrate with 80% protein (liquid or spray dried) did not produce a foam. All powders had higher aroma intensity and cooked flavors compared with liquids. Powder proteins also had low but distinct cardboard flavor concurrent with higher relative abundance of volatile aldehydes compared with liquids. An understanding of how spray drying affects both flavor and functionality may help food processors better use the ingredients they have available to them.

Applications of hydrodynamic cavitation for instant rehydration of high protein milk powders

The aim of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of an in-line hydrodynamic cavitation (HC) system, for rehydration of milk protein concentrate powders (MPC) at semi-industrial pilot scale. MPC powder was dispersed in water at 50 °C at 20% (w/w) dry matter (DM) with two commonly used high-shear powder inductors/mixers. The MPC dispersions created were then passed through the HC system to assess subsequent hydration behaviour of the MPC powders. Particle size distribution (PSD) of MPC dispersions prepared using conventional high-shear mixing indicated that complete rehydration of MPC powders was not achieved, with an average D90 and D[4,3] values of 21.17 μm and 5.62 μm respectively, observed in MPC dispersions. In contrast MPC dispersions subjected to HC had a PSD indicative of complete rehydration, with an average D90 and D[4,3] values of 0.45 μm and 0.19 μm, respectively. Apparent viscosity decreased significantly (p≤.05) post HC compared to dispersions subjected to conventional high shear mixing. Phase separation profiles showed that HC treated MPC dispersions had increased stability to sedimentation compared to high-shear treated samples. Wetting, immersion, dissolution and solubilisation of high protein powders occurred instantaneously (and simultaneously) during HC. This emerging technology has the potential to achieve complete rehydration of powders in significantly less time than conventional rehydration processes employed by dairy and other industries.

A calorie-restriction diet supplemented with fish oil and high-protein powder is associated with reduced severity of metabolic syndrome in obese women.

The prevalence of metabolic syndrome (MetS) and obesity has increased worldwide, as well as in Taiwan, particularly in women aged>40 years. The purpose of this study was to elucidate the effects of a calorie-restriction diet (CR) supplemented with protein and n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) on women with MetS. A total of 143 eligible female participants were recruited and assigned to four dietary interventions such as 1500-kcal CR, calorie-restriction meal-replacement diet (CRMR), calorie-restriction diet with fish oil supplementation (CRF) and calorie-restriction meal-replacement diet with fish oil supplementation (CRMRF). The changes in anthropometric measures, metabolic profiles, inflammatory response and the Z-score of severity of MetS were evaluated. Among 143 female MetS patients enrolled, 136 patients completed the 12-week study. After the 12-week dietary interventions, we observed reductions in body weight (BW), body mass index (BMI) and waist circumference (WC) in all groups. BMI and triglyceride (TG) levels decreased significantly in the CRMR, CRF and CRMRF groups, but not in the CR group. The homeostasis model assessment of insulin resistance (HOMA-IR) had significantly improved in all four groups, and the levels of interleukin-6 (IL-6) and C-reactive protein (CRP) had significantly decreased in the CRF and CRMRF groups. Following the interventions, the changes in waist circumference (WC), mean arterial pressure (MAP), fasting blood glucose (FBG), TGs, HOMA-IR, CRP and IL-6 significantly correlated with the reductions in Z-score of MetS severity. Our study results indicate that a calorie-restriction dietary intervention combined with various macronutrients can reduce the severity of MetS in women and increase recovery from MetS by almost twofold in comparison with a CR alone.

Modified water solubility of milk protein concentrate powders through the application of static high pressure treatment

The effects of high pressure (HP) treatment (100-400 MPa at 10-60 °C) on the solubility of milk protein concentrate (MPC) powders were tested. The solubility, measured at 20 °C, of fresh MPC powders made with no HP treatment was 66%. It decreased by 10% when stored for 6 weeks at ambient temperature (~20 °C) and continued to decrease to less than 50% of its initial solubility after 12 months of storage. Of the combinations of pressure and heat used, a pressure of 200 MPa at 40 °C applied to the concentrate before spray drying was found to be the most beneficial for improved solubility of MPC powders. This combination of pressure/heat improved the initial cold water solubility to 85%. The solubility was maintained at this level after 6 weeks storage at ambient temperature and 85% of the initial solubility was preserved after 12 months. The improved solubility of MPC powders on manufacture and on storage are attributed to an altered surface composition arising from an increased concentration of non-micellar casein in the milk due to HP treatment prior to drying. The improved solubility of high protein powders (95% protein) made from blends of sodium caseinate and whey protein isolate compared with MPC powders (~85% protein) made from ultrafiltered/diafiltered milk confirmed the detrimental role of micellar casein on solubility. The results suggest that increasing the non-micellar casein content by HP treatment of milk or use of blends of sodium caseinate and whey proteins are strategies that may be used to obtain high protein milk powders with enhanced solubility.

Storage induced changes to high protein powders: influence on surface properties and solubility

MPC 80 is a high-protein (80%) milk powder commonly used in the food industry as a functional ingredient and valued for its nutritional quality. However, its rehydration properties decline during storage, causing more time to be required for rehydration of the powder by the end user. It is thought that changes at the surface of the powder particles contribute to this reduced solubility during storage. Surface composition and structural changes in milk protein concentrate (MPC) were observed during 90 days of storage at temperatures of 25 and 40 °C and relative humidities of 44, 66 and 84%. No significant changes to the surface composition (fat, protein and lactose) of the MPC powder samples occurred during storage; however, some changes in the microstructure of the powders were observed. Scanning electron microscopy analysis of the powder particles during dissolution showed the formation of a crust, consisting of a thin layer of fused casein micelles, on the surface of the stored powders. An increase in the hydrophobicity at the surface of the particles was evident by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy analysis of the bonding state of the elements at or near the surface and by atomic force microscopy measurements of the adherence of particles to the surface of a material. The development of this 'crust' is thought to contribute to the decrease in the solubility of the powder particles during storage. The increase in the hydrophobicity at the surface and the casein micelle interactions resulting in the surface crust formation appear to contribute to the decrease in the solubility of MPC during storage.