Heavy-duty Vehicle Applications Research Articles

Engineered Catalyst Support with Improved Durability at Higher Weight Percentage of Platinum

Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM) fuel cells are a suitable electrochemical power source for heavy duty vehicle (HDV) applications due to their high efficiency and durability. The cathode of the fuel cell uses a higher geometric loading of platinum (∼0.2 to 0.4 mgPt/cm2) for the electrocatalysis of the kinetically sluggish Oxygen Reduction Reaction (ORR) which requires higher weight percent loading of the metal (∼50%) on the carbon support to decrease the catalyst layer thickness and hence, the reactant transport losses. The conventionally used supports for platinum catalyst, such as the KetjenBlackTM type high surface area carbon (HSC) features limited mesopore area for the dispersion of Pt nanoparticles leading to increased aggregation and poor durability. Here, we show a new class of carbon materials known as the Engineered Catalyst Support (ECS) developed by Pajarito Powder with higher mesopore fraction for the dispersion of higher weight percentage of Pt nanoparticles. ECS materials can disperse up to 50% Pt by weight of the catalyst thereby enabling lower catalyst layer thickness with higher performance retained after durability test. A comprehensive set of physico-chemical and electrochemical studies in membrane electrode assembly (MEA) are reported to understand the performance and durability of Pt/ECS catalysts.

Porous Carbon Fiber Flow Fields for Heavy-Duty Polymer Electrolyte Fuel Cell (PEFC) Applications

The US Department of Energy (DOE) interim (2030) targets for polymer electrolyte fuel cells (PEFCs) in heavy duty vehicle applications accentuate reduced system cost (US $80/kW), increased peak efficiency (68%), and longer system lifetime (25,000 hrs) [1]. The bipolar plate in a PEFC has to serve several functions such as uniform reactant distribution with minimum pressure loss, efficient product water removal, and maintain high electronic and thermal conductivity. Multiple studies [e.g., 2-4] describe novel materials and engineered designs potentially meet these performance and durability requirements; however, cost is the limiting factor in most cases. For example, the cost of a state-of-the art stainless steel (SS 316L) plate, already approaching minimum feasible plate thickness, is estimated to be (US $3.5/kWnet), which is 17% higher than current DOE target [1]. Thus, low-cost substrate alternatives are required to reduce the cost and facilitate commercialization in heavy-duty applications. One such alternative is a novel PEFC architecture [5] utilizing a laminated structure consisting of flat thin metal foils that separate flow fields with channels formed into the porous gas diffusion layer (GDL). This architecture enables the use of much thinner metal plates compared to stamped ones, reducing the overall system mass and cost. The current study explores the performance of a wide aspect ratio (200 mm x 30 mm) PEFC test fixture with porous carbon fiber flow field compared to conventional solid flow field over a wide range of operating conditions. The wide aspect ratio and channel/rib dimensions for both the porous and the conventional solid flow field are chosen to provide a reasonable pressure loss relevant to heavy-duty PEFC stack application. This new architecture is expected to enable comparable system performance while reducing plate weight and cost.

Advanced ORR Catalysts Based on Intermetallic Nanoparticles and Metal Organic Frameworks

Over the past decade, substantial resources have been devoted to developing proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs). The high cost and insufficient durability of oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) catalysts are the main factors delaying the commercialization of high-efficiency fuel cells. Development of new catalysts with enhanced activity and durability would have a transformative effect on fuel cells and related energy devices. Catalyst design for ORR requires creation of catalytic sites with high ORR activity, but these sites must also have good accessibility for transport of reactants (oxygen, protons, electrons) and products (water). They must also have high durability, with lifetimes of up to 30,000 hours required for heavy duty vehicle applications. The most successful ORR catalysts for PEMFCs are PtM/C, i.e., nanoparticles of Pt alloys with a base metal (e.g., Co, Ni) dispersed on a nanostructured carbon catalyst support. Tuning properties of both the PtM nanoparticles and the C support is necessary to achieve high performance and durability. In recent years, intermetallic PtM nanoparticles in which Pt and M occupy distinct sites in a highly ordered structure have emerged as a leading candidate for PEMFC applications. However, development of nanostructured carbon supports with improved control of morphology and pore properties is needed to fully reap the benefits of advanced intermetallic nanoparticle catalysts. Herein, we report recent advances in development of both intermetallic PtM nanoparticles and nanostructured carbon supports with controlled morphology and pore seize distribution. By combining novel nanostructured materials synthesis with advanced characterization and fuel cell testing, we demonstrate a path to produce highly active catalysts with sufficient durability to meet the challenging requirements of heavy duty trucking applications.

Investigating the Effects of Cascading Accelerated Stress Tests (ASTs) on the Localized Electrochemical Performance Degradation in Polymer Electrolyte Fuel Cells (PEFCs)

With a recent shift in focus from light-duty to heavy-duty vehicle applications, the durability and performance targets for polymer electrolyte fuel cells (PEFCs) have become even more stringent and challenging to achieve; for example, a net power output of 2.5 kW/g-PGM (1.07 A/cm2 current density) at 0.7 V is required after 25,000 hour-equivalent accelerated stress test (AST) [1]. Generally, different ASTs are designed to evaluate Pt electrocatalyst and support durability; for example, a square-wave (SW) AST with H2/N2 between 0.6 V to 0.95 V vs. reversible hydrogen electrode (RHE) targets Pt catalyst and a separate triangular-wave (TW) AST with a higher potential range (1 – 1.5 V vs. RHE) assesses the durability of carbon-based supports [2]. Recently, many studies [3]–[7] have revealed the heterogeneous nature of cathode catalyst layer degradation under different ASTs. Fuel cell electric vehicles are typically subjected to an enormous number of load/unload and start/stop cycles during regular operation. Though there is a considerable body of literature discussing the isolated effects of load/unload and start/stop cycles on durability and performance, there is a dearth of studies exploring the effects of cascading load/unload and start/stop cycles, a scenario more relevant to actual automotive conditions. In the present study, a segmented cell along with ex-situ Pt particle size mapping (through micro-X-ray diffraction) is used to understand the effects of cascading a DoE square-wave AST (0.6 V to 0.95 V vs. RHE) and a triangular-wave (1 – 1.5 V vs. RHE) on the durability and performance of a PEFC.The membrane electrode assemblies (MEAs) are subjected to two cascade ASTs. The first one involves 15k cycles of SW AST followed by 2.5k cycles of TW AST (referred to as Pt-followed-by-carbon, PtfCC, AST) and the other one involves 2.5k cycles of TW AST followed by 15k cycles of SW AST (referred to as Carbon-followed-by-Pt, CCfPt, AST). Multiple in-situ and post-mortem ex-situ techniques are used to obtain particle size distribution and spatial degradation profiles. Preliminary results indicate that the performance losses at the end-of-life (EOL) depend on the cascade order; PtfCC AST leads to higher losses compared to CCfPt AST in wet polarization conditions. The local current distributions are also strongly impacted by the cascade order during the aging process. Figure 1 shows the polarization performance of the samples at the beginning, middle (following the first AST), and the end-of-life of cascade ASTs.

Effect of differential control and sizing on multi-FCS architectures for heavy-duty fuel cell vehicles

The current trend towards a zero-emission transport sector has increased the interest of the scientific community and the industry in fuel cell (FC) technologies in the past few years. Previous studies have focused on passenger car analyses to differentiate them from the current battery electric vehicle (BEV) alternative. However, deploying these technologies may be even more critical for the transportation-produced global emissions if they are used in different applications, such as heavy-duty commercial vehicles. This study uses a differential control strategy to find the best fuel-cell performance for a heavy-duty vehicle application. In addition, and as a differentiation point from other studies in the literature, this article exploits the modularity of the heavy-duty truck sector to implement a design with optimal fuel cell system (FCS) sizing and control dynamics distribution in terms of durability and H2 consumption. Low dynamics could increase 471% in durability just for a 3.8% increase in H2 consumption. When using a multi-FCS with non-equal power FCS, a high dynamics behavior of the small FCS significantly improves the durability for a small consumption penalty (less than 0.7%). The obtained data has proven that the combination of these two design strategies shows an improved vehicle performance that could lead to environmental impact and cost reduction, which is significant in the current development stage of fuel cell vehicle (FCV) technologies.

Enhancing durability of polymer electrolyte membrane using cation size selective agents

Radical species generated during proton exchange membrane fuel cell operation considerably limit the achievable durability, particularly for heavy-duty vehicle applications. A promising solution to the problem is the incorporation of radical scavenger additives such as cerium which mitigates chemical attacks on the membrane. However, these additives migrate during fuel cell operation causing a loss in durability and performance due to detrimental interaction with various components of the fuel cell. Here, we study cation size selective agents as a means to immobilize cerium within perfluorosulfonic acid (PFSA) membranes. We synthesized an organometallic complex of cerium with 15-Crown-5 and investigated the effectiveness of this complex to immobilize cerium. Over 300% increase in cerium retention and an 80% increase in chemical durability were observed owing to the stabilization effect of crown ethers on cerium. Migration under a potential gradient can be eliminated while the complex also contributes to the enhancement in cerium radical scavenging activity. Current challenges with the proposed solution are highlighted and future work is discussed.

The effect of different charging concepts on hydrogen fuelled internal combustion engines

Hydrogen has been widely acknowledged as a potential fuel for internal combustion engines, owing to its unique chemical properties, environmental friendliness, and the ability to be produced from a variety of sources. The carbon-free nature of hydrogen is of particular significance as it is considered to be a key contributor to achieving stringent emissions regulations. However, one of the challenges associated with hydrogen as a fuel is the requirement for high air flow during combustion, which is necessary to meet the stoichiometry of the combustion process. The failure to achieve this high air flow can result in elevated emissions of Nitrogen Oxides (NOx), a phenomenon that is of concern for engine manufacturers.Turbocharging increases the power and efficiency of internal combustion engines by forcing more air into the combustion chamber. This can be particularly beneficial for hydrogen-fuelled engines as hydrogen has a lower energy density compared to traditional fossil fuels. This study aims to establish the most efficient boosting strategy for hydrogen-fuelled internal combustion engines with the goal of achieving a combination of fuel economy, high power density, and low emissions of NOx. To achieve this objective, a model of a hydrogen-fuelled internal combustion engine, specifically tailored for heavy-duty vehicle applications and featuring a direct injection system, has been developed. The validity of the model has been evaluated through a comparison of the results obtained from the model with those obtained from dynamometer testing. The study employs a model-based approach to examine a variety of charging concepts.

Mechanistic Studies of Improving Pt Catalyst Stability at High Potential via Designing Hydrophobic Micro-Environment with Ionic Liquid in PEMFC

Recently, the focus of fuel cell technologies has shifted from light-duty automotive to heavy-duty vehicle applications, which require improving the stability of membrane electrode assemblies (MEAs) at high constant potential. The hydrophilicity of Pt makes it easy to combine with water molecules and then oxidize at high potential, resulting in poor durability of the catalyst. In this work, an ionic liquid [BMIM][NTF2] was used to modify the Pt catalyst (Pt/C + IL) to create a hydrophobic, antioxidant micro-environment in the catalyst layer (CL). The effect of [BMIM][NTF2] on the decay of the CL performance at high constant potential (0.85 V) for a long time was investigated. It was found that the performance attenuation of Pt/C + IL in the high-potential range (OCV 0.75 V) was less than that of commercial Pt/C after 10 h. The Pt-oxide coverage test showed that the hydrophobic micro-environment of the CL enhanced the stability by inhibiting Pt oxidation. In addition, the electrochemical recovery of Pt oxides showed that the content of recoverable oxides in Pt/C + IL was higher than that in commercial Pt/C. Overall, modifying the Pt catalyst with hydrophobic ionic liquid is an effective strategy to improve the catalyst stability and reduce the irreversible voltage loss caused by the oxide at high constant potential.

Groovy Electrodes Enable Facile O2 and H+ Transport in PEMFCs

Polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs) are promising alternative to internal combustion engines, owing to their capability to produce on-demand power with zero local carbon emissions. However, PEMFCs suffer from limitations related to performance, particularly for heavy-duty vehicle applications [1]. A major contributor to the performance loss is the cathode electrode; uncontrolled conventional electrode structures lead to non-ideal transport pathways of O2 and H+ [2], subsequently leading to performance loss. Here, we report an alternative electrode structure termed groovy electrodes, fabricated via patterned Si templates. Si templates with desired patterns are fabricated through photolithography and deep-reactive ion etching techniques (Fig. 1a), and an electrode layer is coated onto the template and subsequently transferred to the membrane or the gas diffusion layer. The resulting electrode features ordered grooves with consistent depth and width (Fig. 1b-c). We will present how this alternative structure enables improved H+ transport (enabled by higher ionomer content) with grooves facilitating effective O2 transport to reaction sites. We will also demonstrate the benefits of a groovy electrode for the durability of PEMFCs. Reference Cullen et al., Nat. Energy, 6, 462 (2021).Ramaswamy et al., J. Electrochem. Soc., 167, 064515 (2020). Figure 1

Recreating Fuel Cell Catalyst Degradation in Aqueous Environments for Identical-Location Scanning Transmission Electron Microscopy Studies

Proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs) have long been studied for applications in sustainable transportation. The recent shift in focus from passenger vehicle to heavy duty applications places increased demand on the efficiency and durability of the components used in membrane electrode assemblies (MEAs).[1] Of particular interest are the oxygen reduction reaction electrocatalysts used in the fuel cell cathode. While the relaxed capital cost requirements for heavy duty applications allows for increased precious metal loadings, the four-fold increase in operating lifetime requires improved catalysts which can express their high activity not only at beginning-of-life, but also after 25k-hour equivalent accelerated stress tests (ASTs).This paradigm shift prioritizes efforts aimed at understanding and subsequently controlling catalyst degradation. In situ characterization methods can be instrumental in this effort, but it is critical that the operating conditions in these studies reliably replicate the type and degree of degradation observed in the operating fuel cell.[2,3] In this study, identical-location scanning transmission electron microscopy (IL-STEM) is used to compare catalyst degradation in an aqueous environment to degradation observed ex situ in MEAs following AST cycling.[4] For traditional catalysts, the aqueous environment appears to replicate the dissolution and coalescence mechanisms observed for Pt catalysts with small starting particle sizes (<3nm) supported primarily on the surfaces of graphitized carbon supports. In evaluating more stable alloy catalysts (4-5nm) supported on high surface area carbon supports, the large discrepancy between degradation in the aqueous and MEA environment was observed. In particular, the Ostwald ripening mechanism, which is more dominate in these high surface area carbons, seemed absent in the aqueous environment.[5]To better replicate the type and degree of degradation in the MEA environment, various experimental parameters such as temperature, acid type/concentration, and upper and lower potential limits were explored. By extending the cycling potential window from 0.6-0.95 Vvs . to 0.4-1.0 Vvs . RHE in an sulfuric acid electrolyte containing Pt ions, the Ostwald ripening mechanism was enhanced, resulting in an end-of-test particle size distribution and composition which better match MEA tests. These refined conditions can now be used to perform in situ and identical-location experiments that will play an important role in the development of robust catalysts for heavy-duty vehicle applications.[6]References[1] D. A. Cullen, et al. Nat. Energy 2021, 6 (5), 462–474.[2] J. A. Gilbert, et al. Electrochim. Acta 2015, 173, 223–234.[3] I. Martens, et al. ACS Energy Lett. 2021, 6 (8), 2742–2749.[4] S. Rasouli, et al. Nano Lett. 2019, 19 (1), 46–53.[5] E. Padgett, et al. J. Electrochem. Soc. 2019, 166 (4), F198–F207[6] This material is primarily based on work performed by the Million Mile Fuel Cell Truck (M2FCT) Consortium (https://millionmilefuelcelltruck.org), technology manager Greg Kleen, which is supported by the U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Technologies Office. Electron microscopy was conducted at the Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences, which is a DOE Office of Science User Facility.

Fault Diagnosis and Protection of Phase Auxiliary Output for Automotive D+ Alternators

In heavy-duty vehicle applications, the D&#x002B; alternator with the alternator-voltage-regulator (AVR) is widely used to supply electric loads due to lower cost and wide application possibilities. The phase voltage of D&#x002B; alternator is usually connected as auxiliary output, such as techometer; however, its wiring may short to ground through the vehicle frame due to the damage of the isolation. This would result in severe thermal events and safety issues. In this paper, a novel phase fault diagnose and protection method is proposed to prevent the thermal event and safety issue for phase auxiliary output fault in D&#x002B; alternator system of heavy duty vehicles. The method detects the voltage dip from D&#x002B; terminal without extra wiring or external components. Besides, prior art issues such as complex design, high noise sensitivity, and higher cost can be solved. The analysis and LTSpice simulation of D&#x002B; voltages in normal conditions and fault conditions set the foundation and parameter design for the proposed method. The experimental platform with a three-phase D&#x002B; alternator verified that the proposed method can diagnose and protect the ground fault while the alternator is generating power with rotating speed ranging from 2000 to 6000 rpm, and the AVR can stop the alternator output to prevent the thermal event. As soon as the fault is removed, the AVR can automatically reboot the system and return to a normal operation mode.

Advanced Pt-Based Core-Shell Electrocatalysts for Fuel Cell Cathodes.

ConspectusProton-exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs) are highly efficient energy storage and conversion devices. Thus, the platinum group metal (PGM)-based catalysts which are the dominant choice for the PEMFCs have received extensive interest during the past couple of decades. However, the drawbacks in the existing PGM-based catalysts (i.e., high cost, slow kinetics, poor stability, etc.) still limit their applications in fuel cells. The Pt-based core-shell catalysts potentially alleviate these issues through the low Pt loading with the associated low cost and the high corrosion resistance and further improve the oxygen reduction reaction's (ORR's) activity and stability. This Account focuses on the synthetic strategies, catalytic mechanisms, factors influencing enhanced ORR performance, and applications in PEMFCs for the Pt-based core-shell catalysts. We first highlight the synthetic strategies for Pt-based core-shell catalysts including the galvanic displacement of an underpotentially deposited non-noble metal monolayer, thermal annealing, and dealloying methods, which can be scaled-up to meet the requirements of fuel cell operations. Subsequently, catalytic mechanisms such as the self-healing mechanism in the Pt monolayer on Pd core catalysts, the pinning effect of nitrogen (N) dopants in N-doped PtNi core-shell catalysts, and the ligand effect of the ordered intermetallic structure in L10-Pt/CoPt core-shell catalysts and their synergistic effects in N-doped L10-PtNi catalysts are described in detail. The core-shell structure in the Pt-based catalysts have two main effects for enhanced ORR performance: (i) the interaction between Pt shells and core substrates can tune the electronic state of the surface Pt, thus boosting the ORR activity and stability, and (ii) the outer Pt shell with modest thickness can enhance the oxidation and dissolution resistance of the core, resulting in improved durability. We then review the recent attempts to optimize the ORR performance of the Pt-based core-shell catalysts by considering the shape, composition, surface orientation, and shell thickness. The factors influencing the ORR performance can be grouped into two categories: the effect of the core and the effect of the shell. In the former, PtM core-shell catalysts which use different non-PGM element cores (M) are summarized, and in the latter, Pt-based core-shell catalysts with different shell structures and compositions are described. The modifications of the core and/or shell structure can not only optimize the intermediate-binding energetics on the Pt surface through tuning the strain of the surface Pt, which increases the intrinsic activity and stability, but also offer a significantly decreased catalyst cost. Finally, we discuss the membrane electrode assembly performance of Pt-based core-shell catalysts in fuel cell cathodes and evaluate their potential in real PEMFCs for light-duty and heavy-duty vehicle applications. Even though some challenges to the activity and lifetime in the fuel cells remain, the Pt-based core-shell catalysts are expected to be promising for many practical PEMFC applications.

Recreating Fuel Cell Catalyst Degradation in Aqueous Environments for Identical-Location Scanning Transmission Electron Microscopy Studies

The recent surge in interest of proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs) for heavy-duty vehicles increases the demand on the durability of oxygen reduction reaction electrocatalysts used in the fuel cell cathode. This prioritizes efforts aimed at understanding and subsequently controlling catalyst degradation. Identical-location scanning transmission electron microscopy (IL-STEM) is a powerful method that enables precise characterization of degradation processes in individual catalyst nanoparticles across various stages of cycling. Recreating the degradation processes that occur in PEMFC membrane electrode assemblies (MEAs) within the aqueous cell used for IL-STEM experiments is vital for generating an accurate understanding of these processes. In this work, we investigate the type and degree of catalyst degradation achieved by cycling in an aqueous cell compared to a PEMFC MEA. While significant degradation is observed in IL-STEM experiments performed on a traditional Pt catalyst using the standard accelerated stress test potential window (0.6-0.95 VRHE), degradation of a PtCo catalyst designed for heavy-duty vehicle use is very limited compared to that observed in MEAs. We therefore explore various experimental parameters such as temperature, acid type, acid concentration, ionomer content, and potential window to identify conditions that reproduce the degradation observed in MEAs. We find that by extending the cycling potential window to 0.4-1.0 VRHE in an electrolyte containing Pt ions, the degraded particle size distribution and alloy composition better match that observed in MEAs. In particular, these conditions increase the relative contribution of Ostwald ripening, which appears to play a more significant role in the degradation of larger alloy particles supported on high-surface-area carbons than coalescence. Results from this work highlight the potential for discrepancies between ex situ aqueous experiments and MEA tests. While different catalysts may require a unique modification to the AST protocol, strategies provided in this work enable future in situ and identical-location experiments that will play an important role in the development of robust catalysts for heavy-duty vehicle applications.

Protonated phosphonic acid electrodes for high power heavy-duty vehicle fuel cells

State-of-the-art automotive fuel cells that operate at about 80 °C require large radiators and air intakes to avoid overheating. High-temperature fuel cells that operate above 100 °C under anhydrous conditions provide an ideal solution for heat rejection in heavy-duty vehicle applications. Here we report protonated phosphonic acid electrodes that remarkably improve the performance of high-temperature polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells. The protonated phosphonic acids comprise tetrafluorostyrene-phosphonic acid and perfluorosulfonic acid polymers, where a perfluorosulfonic acid proton is transferred to the phosphonic acid to enhance the anhydrous proton conduction of fuel cell electrodes. By using this material in fuel cell electrodes, we obtained a fuel cell exhibiting a rated power density of 780 mW cm–2 at 160 °C, with minimal degradation during 2,500 h of operation and 700 thermal cycles from 40 to 160 °C under load.

(Plenary) Integrate to Extend the Reach of Solid Oxide Fuel Cells

Solid Oxide Fuel Cells (SOFCs) offer the potential for compelling thermo-economic value propositions in wide range of stationary and transportation applications through their potential for high conversion efficiency and their inherent fuel flexibility. Furthermore, many of the core SOFC materials, component, and system technologies have tremendous potential in electrolysis applications where fuels or chemicals could be produced using renewable electricity. However, to date, the wide-spread commercialization of SOFC/SOEC systems has been hampered by their high cost and durability challenges.Fortunately, high temperature solid oxide-based energy conversion systems are well suited for integration with thermal-mechanical energy conversion systems in configurations that offer the potential for significant cost and thermodynamic performance synergies. Specifically, their integration with gas turbines or internal combustion engines offers the potential for ultra-high (>70%) efficiency at an attractive manufacturing cost (<$1/W). In these hybrid systems, engines or turbines are used to convert stack waste exergy to additional useful work resulting in higher overall efficiency and lower power-specific cost (e.g., $/kW) compared to SOFC-only systems.Furthermore, in the case of SOFC and gas turbine hybrid systems, the SOFC stacks are typically located downstream of the gas turbine compressor and are at elevated pressure—enabling increased Nernst potential and decreased overpotentials and thereby higher power density at constant voltage. This benefit translates into a significant power-specific stack cost reduction. Additionally, the gas turbine compressor and recuperator may serve as the SOFC stack blower and recuperator—yielding further cost synergies via the elimination of duplicative balance of plant components.In 2017, ARPA-E launched the INTEGRATE program to develop hybrid system concepts and enabling component technologies that if realized would result in 100kW-scale distributed generation systems with >70% fuel to electricity conversion efficiencies and system manufacturing costs of <$1/W. In the initial two-year Phase I portion of the program, nine teams developed a suite of hybrid system concepts. Given these concepts, the teams then proceeded to develop 1) durable SOFC stacks that are capable of operating at high (~4 bar) pressure, 2) high temperature (>600 °C) and low-cost heat exchangers, and 3) innovative control system approaches. In 2019, three of the original nine teams were selected to design, build and demonstrate 100kW-scale systems by 2023.In the interest of focusing limited financial resources on foundational development risks, while avoiding the weight, volume, and fuel flexibility challenges associated with transportation applications and mitigating the financial risks associated with adopting new technologies at utility (e.g., >100MW) scale, natural gas fueled distributed generation (DG) systems were selected as the initial INTEGRATE application target. These DG systems would offer a fuel to electric power conversion efficiency that is roughly double that of the fossil fueled portion of the US electric grid. Furthermore, as renewable fuels such as hydrogen, ammonia, and bio- or electro- derived hydrocarbons (e.g., renewable natural gas or synthetic kerosene) become available, these systems would be capable of operating on them with relatively minor fuel processing system adjustments.Moving beyond stationary DG applications, SOFC hybrid systems can leverage their fuel flexibility in the pursuit of a decarbonized of long-distance transportation sector—if the systems can be made both light and small enough. To this end, ARPA-E recently launched three programs that have taken on the challenge of developing ultra-efficient, yet compact and light weight carbon-neutral electrified propulsion systems for commercial aviation.One of these programs is focused on carbon-neutral fuel to electric power conversion sub-systems—Range Extenders for Electric Aviation with Low Carbon and High Efficiency (REEACH). In the two-year Phase 1 of this program, six of nine selected teams will develop SOFC/gas turbine/battery hybrid systems that are fueled with renewable natural gas or synthetic kerosene. Phase 1 focuses on system conceptual design and fuel conversion component risk reduction, while full system design and prototype demonstration of a sub-scale fuel-to-electric power conversion device using a carbon-neutral liquid fuel is planned for Phase 2.If the REEACH-envisioned systems are successfully developed, they would enable economically attractive all-electric commercial aircraft up to a narrow body airframe with dramatically reduced (ideally zero) net carbon emissions. Furthermore, INTEGRATE/REEACH hybrid system technologies would also have attractive value propositions in maritime, rail, or heavy-duty vehicle applications.

Simulation of high pressure, direct injection processes of gaseous fuels by a density-based OpenFOAM solver

The direct injection of a gaseous fuel in internal combustion engines involves under-expanded supersonic jets and complex air/fuel fluid-dynamics. Furthermore, with the high pressure ratios between the injector and the cylinder, the gaseous flow usually becomes choked even inside the injector. Knowledge of all these phenomena is essential to achieve a deeper understanding of the air–fuel mixing process that follows, influencing combustion and pollutant formation. In this framework, this study deals with the development and validation of a fully explicit, density-based solver for supersonic compressible flows, using the OpenFOAM library and featuring Runge–kutta fourth order time discretization and the Kurganov central flux splitting scheme. This methodology was applied to analyze the inner and the external flow of an innovative, multi-hole, high pressure injector for heavy-duty vehicle applications. The adoption of multi-hole patterned injectors in gaseous fuel combustion systems is believed to be an efficient way of achieving a better air/fuel mixture and, therefore, improving the combustion reaction. The present work aims to evaluate the reliability of the aforementioned mathematical approach for such kinds of complex flows and, especially, provide a comprehensive characterization of the multi-jet spray. It was found that shock waves in the internal-nozzle deeply modify the flow development and the external Mach disk as shock cells move the mixing activity on a lateral shear layer. It was also observed that a methane cloud grows downstream and, although flammable conditions are present, it later inhibits air recirculation toward the near nozzle zone.

New roads and challenges for fuel cells in heavy-duty transportation

The recent release of hydrogen economy roadmaps for several major countries emphasizes the need for accelerated worldwide investment in research and development activities for hydrogen production, storage, infrastructure and utilization in transportation, industry and the electrical grid. Due to the high gravimetric energy density of hydrogen, the focus of technologies that utilize this fuel has recently shifted from light-duty automotive to heavy-duty vehicle applications. Decades of development of cost-effective and durable polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells must now be leveraged to meet the increased efficiency and durability requirements of the heavy-duty vehicle market. This Review summarizes the latest market outlooks and targets for truck, bus, locomotive and marine applications. Required changes to the fuel-cell system and operating conditions for meeting Class 8 long-haul truck targets are presented. The necessary improvements in fuel-cell materials and integration are also discussed against the benchmark of current passenger fuel-cell electric vehicles.

Stochastic power management approach for a hybrid solid oxide fuel cell/battery auxiliary power unit for heavy duty vehicle applications

The present paper aims to develop an innovative real-time power management strategy dedicated to the efficient operation of an auxiliary power unit (APU) in a heavy-duty vehicle. Specifically, the APU comprises a Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (SOFC) system and a Lead-Acid battery pack. The power management strategy envisages optimal power sharing between the APU elements and it is defined based on Simultaneous Perturbation Stochastic Approximation (SPSA) principle, pursuing SOFC power profile smoothing in real-time. The SPSA-based algorithm introduced here overcomes real-time operation issues remarked in other implementations (fuzzy logic, genetic algorithms), accounting for a robust and less complex formulation. The power management strategy is implemented in a dynamic model developed in Matlab/Simulink, simulating SOFC-based APU behavior. Simulation outcomes highlight that the proposed strategy allows a global energy saving over 6% if compared to a conventional power management, based on power split control. Moreover, comparing the power profiles corresponding to the battery and the SOFC, it is remarked as SOFC power oscillations evaluated over 1 s timeframe are halved, achieving values lower than 4.5 W/s for more than 80% of the operation time.

Design space exploration for waste heat recovery system in automotive application under driving cycle

Organic Rankine Cycle (ORC) systems have been recently considered for the promising application to Waste Heat Recovery (WHR) in automotive application. However, the design of ORC systems for highly transient operations typical of heavy-duty vehicles faces several challenges. This work extends the method of Design Space Exploration (DSE) to optimize the design of an ORC system for heavy-duty vehicle applications. The goal is to match the size of ORC system with the feature areas of driving cycle. Starting from drive cycle data, the feature areas are identified to represent the driving cycle. Then, a Weighted Least Square method is adopted to determine the initial design condition from feature areas, and based on the design condition, the initial ORC model is built for the further optimization. Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) with parallel computation is adopted to optimize the performance of nonlinear ORC system with coupled constraints. The result shows that the optimal system can output 6.87% more power than the initial system and 20.08% more power than the inferior system over the feature areas of WHTC test. The analysis shown in this work also includes general design guidelines for optimizing the system architecture and optimally sizing the heat exchangers to improve the ORC thermal efficiency.

Energy Consumption and Cost Savings of Truck Electrification for Heavy-Duty Vehicle Applications

An evaluation was made of the application of battery electric vehicles (BEVs) and GenSet plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) to Class-7 local delivery trucks and GenSet PHEV for Class-8 utility bucket trucks over widely real-world driving data performed by conventional heavy-duty trucks. GenSet refers to a PHEV range extension mode in which the PHEV engine is used only to generate electricity and charge the battery if the PHEV battery is out of electrical energy. A simulation tool based on vehicle tractive energy methodology and component efficiency for addressing component and system performance was developed to evaluate the energy consumption and performance of the trucks. As part of this analysis, various battery sizes combined with different charging powers on the e-trucks for local delivery, and utility bucket applications were investigated. The results show that the e-truck applications not only reduce energy consumption but also achieve significant energy cost savings. For delivery e-trucks, periodic stops at delivery sites provide sufficient time for battery charging, and for this reason, a high-power charger is not necessary. For utility bucket PHEV trucks, energy consumption per mile of bucket truck operation is typically higher because of longer idling times and extra high idling load associated with heavy utility work. The availability of en route charging is typically lacking at the worksites of bucket trucks; thus, the battery size of these trucks is somewhat larger than that of the delivery trucks studied.