Growth-related Changes Research Articles

Morphological variation in paediatric lower limb bones

Available methods for generating paediatric musculoskeletal geometry are to scale generic adult geometry, which is widely accessible but can be inaccurate, or to obtain geometry from medical imaging, which is accurate but time-consuming and costly. A population-based shape model is required to generate accurate and accessible musculoskeletal geometry in a paediatric population. The pelvis, femur, and tibia/fibula were segmented from 333 CT scans of children aged 4–18 years. Bone morphology variation was captured using principal component analysis (PCA). Subsequently, a shape model was developed to predict bone geometry from demographic and linear bone measurements and validated using a leave one out analysis. The shape model was compared to linear scaling of adult and paediatric bone geometry. The PCA captured growth-related changes in bone geometry. The shape model predicted bone geometry with root mean squared error (RMSE) of 2.91 ± 0.99 mm in the pelvis, 2.01 ± 0.62 mm in the femur, and 1.85 ± 0.54 mm in the tibia/fibula. Linear scaling of an adult mesh produced RMSE of 4.79 ± 1.39 mm in the pelvis, 4.38 ± 0.72 mm in the femur, and 4.39 ± 0.86 mm in the tibia/fibula. We have developed a method for capturing and predicting lower limb bone shape variation in a paediatric population more accurately than linear scaling without using medical imaging.

A macroscopic approach for stress-driven anisotropic growth in bioengineered soft tissues

The simulation of growth processes within soft biological tissues is of utmost importance for many applications in the medical sector. Within this contribution, we propose a new macroscopic approach for modelling stress-driven volumetric growth occurring in soft tissues. Instead of using the standard approach of a-priori defining the structure of the growth tensor, we postulate the existence of a general growth potential. Such a potential describes all eligible homeostatic stress states that can ultimately be reached as a result of the growth process. Making use of well-established methods from visco-plasticity, the evolution of the growth-related right Cauchy–Green tensor is subsequently defined as a time-dependent associative evolution law with respect to the introduced potential. This approach naturally leads to a formulation that is able to cover both, isotropic and anisotropic growth-related changes in geometry. It furthermore allows the model to flexibly adapt to changing boundary and loading conditions. Besides the theoretical development, we also describe the algorithmic implementation and furthermore compare the newly derived model with a standard formulation of isotropic growth.

Metabolism of Imidazole Dipeptides, Taurine, Branched-Chain Amino Acids, and Polyamines of the Breast Muscle Are Affected by Post-Hatch Development in Chickens.

To explore metabolic characteristics during the post-hatch developmental period, metabolomic analyses of breast muscle and plasma were performed in chickens. The most significant growth-related changes in metabolite levels were observed between seven and 28 days of age. Some of these metabolites are essential nutrients or reported as growth-promoting metabolites. In the muscle, two imidazole dipeptides—carnosine and its methylated metabolite, anserine—increased with the development. These dipeptide levels may be, in part, regulated transcriptionally because in the muscle mRNA levels of carnosine synthase and carnosine methylation enzyme increased. In contrast, taurine levels in the muscle decreased. This would be substrate availability-dependent because some upstream metabolites decreased in the muscle or plasma. In branched-chain amino acid metabolism, valine, leucine, and isoleucine decreased in the muscle, while some of their downstream metabolites decreased in the plasma. The polyamines, putrescine and spermidine, decreased in the muscle. Furthermore, mRNA levels associated with insulin/insulin-like growth factor 1 signaling, which play important roles in muscle growth, increased in the muscle. These results indicate that some metabolic pathways would be important to clarify metabolic characteristics and/or growth of breast muscle during the post-hatch developmental period in chickens.

Case report: early class III correction using titanium dental implants and facemask therapy: a 24-year follow-up

Abstract The management of a Class III malocclusion in the mixed dentition presents with many challenges, in particular, the post-treatment growth-related changes which can continue into adulthood. This case report describes the multidisciplinary management of a 9-year-old female using titanium dental implants, rapid maxillary expansion and a Delaire facemask. Pre-treatment, post-treatment and long-term follow-up records of the patient are presented.

Macroscopic modelling of stress driven anisotropic growth in bioengineered tissues

AbstractWithin this contribution we present a new approach to macroscopically describe stress‐driven volumetric growth occurring in soft tissues. To overcome the limitations of an a‐priori prescribed structure of the growth tensor, the existence of a general growth potential is postulated. Such a potential aims to describe a homeostatic stress state that is ultimately reached as a result of the growth process. Similar to well established methods from the field of visco‐plasticity, we formulate the evolution of the growth related right Cauchy‐Green tensor as a time dependent associative evolution law with respect to the given growth potential. This approach is not restricted to describe either isotropic or anisotropic growth related changes in geometry, but can cover both, which gives the model a flexibility that many other established models are lacking. Besides the main aspects of the theoretical development, we also show numerical examples comparing the newly derived model with a standard formulation of isotropic growth.

Adolescent Running Biomechanics - Implications for Injury Prevention and Rehabilitation.

Global participation in running continues to increase, especially amongst adolescents. Consequently, the number of running-related injuries (RRI) in adolescents is rising. Emerging evidence now suggests that overuse type injuries involving growing bone (e.g., bone stress injuries) and soft tissues (e.g., tendinopathies) predominate in adolescents that participate in running-related sports. Associations between running biomechanics and overuse injuries have been widely studied in adults, however, relatively little research has comparatively targeted running biomechanics in adolescents. Moreover, available literature on injury prevention and rehabilitation for adolescent runners is limited, and there is a tendency to generalize adult literature to adolescent populations despite pertinent considerations regarding growth-related changes unique to these athletes. This perspective article provides commentary and expert opinion surrounding the state of knowledge and future directions for research in adolescent running biomechanics, injury prevention and supplemental training.

Atlas of MRI findings of sacroiliitis in pediatric sacroiliac joints to accompany the updated preliminary OMERACT pediatric JAMRIS (Juvenile Idiopathic Arthritis MRI Score) scoring system: Part II: Structural damage lesions

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is the imaging modality of choice for identifying sacroiliitis in juvenile idiopathic arthritis (JIA). Besides active lesions of sacroiliitis, of which bone marrow edema (BME) is the key feature, structural damage lesions can also be detected. Structural changes include erosion, sclerosis, fat lesion, backfill and ankylosis, and are more common at later stages. Systematic MRI assessment of inflammation and structural damage may aid in monitoring the course of the disease and evaluating treatment options. In this pictorial essay, we illustrate normal MRI findings and growth-related changes of the SIJ in the pediatric population, as well as the different MRI features of structural damage of sacroiliitis. This atlas can serve as a reference for assessing structural lesions of SIJ arthritis according to the updated preliminary JAMRIS (Juvenile Idiopathic Arthritis MRI Score) scoring system proposed by the MRI in JIA working group of Outcome Measures in Rheumatology and Clinical Trials (OMERACT). The atlas is intended to be read in conjunction with its companion Part 1, Active Lesions.

Atlas of MRI findings of sacroiliitis in pediatric sacroiliac joints to accompany the updated preliminary OMERACT pediatric JAMRIS (Juvenile Idiopathic Arthritis MRI Score) scoring system: Part I: Active lesions

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is an increasingly important tool for identifying involvement of the sacroiliac joints (SIJ) in juvenile idiopathic arthritis (JIA). The key feature for diagnosing active sacroiliitis is bone marrow edema (BME), but other features of active arthritis such as joint space inflammation, inflammation in an erosion cavity, capsulitis and enthesitis can be seen as well. Structural changes may also be seen. Systematic MRI assessment of inflammation and structural damage may aid in monitoring the disease course, choice of therapeutics and evaluating treatment response. In this pictorial essay, we illustrate normal MRI findings and growth-related changes of the SIJ in the pediatric population, as well as the different MRI features of SIJ inflammation. This atlas demonstrates fundamental MRI disease features of active inflammation in a format that can serve as a reference for assessing SIJ arthritis according to the updated preliminary JAMRIS (Juvenile Idiopathic Arthritis MRI Score) scoring system proposed by the MRI in JIA working group of Outcome Measures in Rheumatology and Clinical Trials (OMERACT). The atlas is intended to be read in conjunction with its companion Part 2, Structural Lesions.

Treatment efficiency of activator and skeletal anchored Forsus Fatigue Resistant Device appliances

The aim of the study was to investigate the treatment efficiency of miniplate anchored Forsus Fatigue Resistant Device (MAF) as compared with the activator appliance. Mandibular retrognathia was treated with two methods, the MAF group (8 girls, 11 boys, mean age 13.03 ± 0.69years) and the activator group (7 girls, 12 boys, mean age 12.68 ± 0.73years). An untreated control group (9 girls, 10 boys, mean age 12.95 ± 0.73years) was constructed to eliminate growth-related changes through the American Association of Orthodontists Foundation Legacy Collection. Data of 114 lateral cephalograms were analyzed. The inhibition of the maxillary growth was greater in the MAF group, whereas forward displacement of the mandible was higher in the activator group (P < 0.05). Sagittal maxillomandibular relation was improved similarly in both treatment groups (P < 0.05). Mandibular length was increased in both treatment groups with the highest increase in the activator group (P < 0.05). Retroclination of the incisors was observed in the MAF group (P < 0.05). The upper lip was retruded in the MAF group and lower lip was protruded in the activator group (P < 0.05). The activator created greater mandibular changes, whereas the MAF provides somewhat smaller mandibular changes due to the restriction caused by retroclined maxillary incisors. Although both MAF and activator treatments caused favorable maxillomandibular changes, new treatment alternatives that reduce dentoalveolar side effects and eliminate patient cooperation are still required to achieve skeletal correction in class II malocclusion treatment in growing patients.

Growth-related changes in salt gland mass in gentoo and chinstrap penguin chicks

The salt gland is a well-developed osmoregulation organ in marine birds, and its relative size often reflects an individual’s feeding environment and osmoregulation capability. The development and functions of salt glands have been described for the Adelie penguin (Pygoscelis adeliae), but this information has been poorly documented in the other two pygoscelid species: gentoo (P. papua) and chinstrap penguins (P. antarcticus). To describe the growth-related changes in salt gland masses in relation to chick growth, we measured the wet mass of the salt glands collected from dead gentoo and chinstrap chicks during the early breeding period. The mass of the salt glands was linearly proportional to their body measurements, especially to body mass, in both species, and no significant difference was detected between the two species. Penguins are obligate marine dwellers throughout their life cycle, and the development of the salt gland in penguin chicks suggests that their ability to regulate dietary osmotic stress begins at an early stage of development after hatching. Furthermore, the linear relationship between the gland mass and body mass also suggests that the osmoregulation capability may continue to develop as penguin chicks grow. This descriptive note provides novel and quantitative information on the early developmental pattern of salt glands in gentoo and chinstrap penguins.

Growth-related trophic changes of Thunnus thynnus as evidenced by stable nitrogen isotopic values in the first dorsal spine

The bluefin tuna, Thunnus thynnus, is a highly migratory and long-living fish at the top of the pelagic food web. As top predator, it plays a key role in the stability of marine food webs by exerting top-down control on its prey. The diet composition of bluefin tuna varies in relation to its growth, seasons and migratory patterns, making it difficult to evaluate spatial and temporal effects. This latter aspect is further complicated to be determined during the first months of life, when T. thynnus specimens have a rapid growth rate leading to changes in the trophic status. In this study, the potential collagen-related effects on δ15N and δ13C values were evaluated on the whole spine of adult tuna specimens collected in the central Mediterranean Sea. Obtained results showed non-significant differences between extracted and non-extracted collagen samples for δ15N in whole spine, allowing adopting the isotopic analysis both for annuli in the spine section of adults and for younger specimens, whose spine size does not permit the collagen extraction. Specifically, isotopic analysis of whole spine of the young of the year specimens, showed a rapid change in δ15N values with length, following an exponential model. For older specimens, δ15N values were higher and varied around a plateau, likely due to a higher specificity in the choice of prey and/or to change in the geographical location. Such variability was also mirrored in annuli of spines sections of adult tunas. As far as δ13C values are concerned, a strong collagen-related effect was evidenced, likely highlighting the influence of lipids. Consequently, δ13C analysis may be used only on adult specimens where collagen extraction is possible. This research also showed how isotopic analysis of both whole sample and sequence of annuli in the cross-section of dorsal spine might produce isotopic profiles useful to detect specific trophic dynamics along the bluefin tuna growth.

Phase Angle from Bioelectric Impedance and Maturity-Related Factors in Adolescent Athletes: A Systematic Review

Phase angle (PhA) is a body composition (BC) parameter from bioelectrical impedance analysis that is suggested as a marker of cell integrity and general health. In adolescent athletes, PhA values are used to monitor the effects of training and competitions and seem to vary according to age, having an upward trajectory during puberty. Since adolescence is a period composed of maturation stages, the aim of this systematic review was to investigate the relationship between PhA and maturation stage in adolescent athletes. A search was conducted in PubMed/MEDLINE, BVS, Web of Science (WOS), Scopus, Science Direct, and Academic Search Complete (EBSCO) databases up to May 2020. Eligibility criteria followed the PICOS strategy and studies with healthy athletes aged 10–19 years of any level of competition were included. Six cross-sectional studies and two longitudinal studies met the inclusion criteria. Results showed that early and mature athletes have higher PhA than those who are non-matured or maturated late. Thus, PhA is influenced by the pubertal status. Considering BC is one of the factors influencing sports performance together with its growth-related changes, practitioners may use PhA values in BC analysis of adolescent athletes.

Effects of Anthropometric Growth and Basketball Experience on Physical Performance in Pre-Adolescent Male Players.

During pre-adolescence, several variables connected to growth and weight status could influence physical performance and technical skills. This study aims to assess the influence of growth-related anthropometric changes, weight status, and basketball experience on physical performance in pre-adolescent basketball players. The sample consisted of 50 male basketball players (12.2 ± 0.4 years-old) included in the U-13 category. Anthropometric characteristics were collected using standard procedures. Physical performance was evaluated by 20 m Dash, T-test, squat jump, countermovement jump, and medicine ball throw. In order to assess growth-related changes, we conducted two surveys within a 10-week time span. Student’s t-test was used to compare the data collected in the two surveys and multiple regression analyses were performed to assess the effects of growth, weight status, and basketball experience on performance. After 10 weeks there was a significant increase in FFM (Fat-Free Mass) and a significant decrease in fat parameters. Moreover, between the two surveys, all motor tests significantly improved. The results of linear regression models showed that changes in %F (percentage of body fat) were significantly associated with speed and agility, while handgrip strength and weight status were associated with upper limb explosive strength. Basketball experience was a significant predictor of all three motor tests. In conclusion, body composition changes, years of experience, and weight status influenced physical performance and players’ motor skills ability, especially speed, agility, and upper limb explosive strength.

Correction of Genu Valgum in Patients With Congenital Fibular Deficiency.

Patients with congenital fibular deficiency often develop genu valgum secondary to lateral femoral condylar hypoplasia. Guided growth strategies are often performed to correct limb alignment when adequate skeletal growth remains. A retrospective review of patients with postaxial hypoplasia of the lower extremity managed with an amputation strategy and who had a guided growth procedure for coronal plane limb malalignment during their course of treatment was performed. Clinical and radiographic data, including measures of coronal plane deformity and alignment, type of amputation, subsequent operative procedures, and complications were recorded. Seventeen patients (20 extremities) met study inclusion criteria (mean follow-up 8.8 y). Foot ablation and hemiepiphysiodesis for valgus deformity of the knee was performed in all extremities. The average age at the time of initial hemiepiphysiodesis was 11.2 years at an average of 8.8 years from the initial amputation procedure. The mean preoperative mechanical axis deviation was 26.5 mm, which was corrected to a mean mechanical axis deviation of 7.0 mm. Fifteen (75%) of the extremities had correction of the deformity to neutral alignment after the initial procedure. Lack of correction occurred in 3 extremities, and overcorrection occurred in 2 extremities. Additional procedures were required in 5 extremities for rebound valgus deformity after hardware removal. In patients with postaxial hypoplasia, regular monitoring of the residual limb for growth-related changes must occur to ensure optimal function and prosthetic fit. Timing of the guided growth procedure is critical, as younger patients may be more likely to experience rebound deformity. Families and patients should be made aware that growth might be unpredictable in this population with risks of both overcorrection and undercorrection. Level IV-case series.

CBCT assessment of posterior cranial base and surrounding structures in orthodontically treated adolescents

Understanding craniofacial growth and development is important for accurate diagnosis, treatment planning and post-treatment evaluation of orthodontic cases. Paramount to this is knowledge of the cranial base growth and development, since it is the foundation upon which the remaining facial structures develop. The purpose of this study was to analyse different anatomical structures in the posterior cranial base and determine its changes during the adolescent years (13-15 year of age) using CBCT. Sixty CBCT images of the adolescent population that received orthodontic treatment at two time-points (mean age T1: 13.1 years/T2: 14.6years) were used to assess growth related dimensional changes using 33 selected landmarks. Inter-rater, intra-rater and accuracy of 33 selected landmarks in the posterior cranial base and surrounding area were then evaluated via three-dimensional (3D) cone-beam computed tomography (CBCT). Linear differences were then calculated among the different landmarks to determine the changes present in the sample. The selected landmarks in the posterior cranial base and surrounding area were found to be reliably and accurately located in 3D. Over the growth period studied (17.5months), minor statistically significant changes occurred, but they were deemed clinically irrelevant. The studied landmarks in the posterior cranial base and surrounding area showed minor clinically insignificant changes over the study period. The observed changes could be attributed to measurement error. The posterior cranial base is deemed to be stable in all three dimensions of study during the adolescent growth period studied.

Carbon sequestration potential of forest vegetation in China from 2003 to 2050: Predicting forest vegetation growth based on climate and the environment

Abstract Over the past two decades, the burning of fossil fuels in China has been excessive, causing carbon emissions to increase. Surface temperatures and the occurrence of natural disasters have also increased. Considering the important role of forests in reducing emissions, China conducted a series of studies on carbon storage by forest vegetation that involved well-developed estimation methods. However, there are still uncertainties in predicting future changes in forest vegetation acting as a carbon sink. This study used data collected from 7801 national forest inventory (NFI) forest plots in 2003, 2008 and 2013 as well as related forest ecosystem biomass data. The dynamic growth, biomass and carbon storage of arbor, economic and shrubbery forests were studied. This study made a breakthrough in predicting forest biomass and carbon storage based on growth-related changes in forest vegetation in China, improved the accuracy of predicting arbor forest carbon storage and filled a gap in research on the carbon storage/sink properties of economic, shrubbery and bamboo forests. In the results of this study, from 2003 to 2050, the carbon storage, density and carbon sink of forest vegetation in China increased rapidly. Mature forests in China played a major role in the increase in carbon storage, and the quality of young, half-mature and mature forests steadily improved. China’s forest carbon storage was mainly concentrated in the southwestern and northeastern regions, between which the southwestern region had the highest carbon density. In addition, carbon storage and density increased faster in the southwestern region than in the northeastern region. The carbon storage and density of forest vegetation were greater in Tibet than in other areas. The carbon storage of forest vegetation in Tibet increased faster than that in other areas, and the carbon density of forest vegetation in Xinjiang increased faster than that in other areas. In addition, the carbon storage and carbon density of forest vegetation in Ningxia increased slower than those in other areas. From 2020 to 2050, China’s forest vegetation will absorb 22.14% of CO2 emissions from fossil fuel combustion, which will play an important role in slowing increases in greenhouse gases in the next 30 years.

Temporal and spatial changes in bone accrual, density, and strain energy density in growing foals

Bone adaptation is in part driven by mechanical loading, and exercise during youth has been shown to have life-long benefits for bone health. However, the development of early exercise-based interventions that reduce the incidence of fractures in racing horses is limited by the lack of characterization of normal development in growing bone. Previous efforts to quantify bone development in the horse have relied on repeated radiographs or peripheral quantitative computed tomography scans, which are limited in their assessment of the entire bone. In this study, we acquired computed tomography scans of three Standardbred trotting colts longitudinally between 2 and 12 months of age. Finite-element models were constructed of the left forelimb proximal phalanx and used to assess strain energy density during quiet standing. Growth related changes in mineral density and bone area fraction in the distal epiphysis, mid-diaphysis, and proximal epiphysis were evaluated. Mineral density and bone area fraction uniformly increased in the diaphysis and strain energy density was constant during growth, indicating adaptation to quiet standing. Bone mineral density and bone area fraction increased in the medial quadrant of the proximal epiphysis but not in the fracture-prone lateral quadrant. The data presented provides a benchmark of normal growth trajectories that can be used to evaluate the effect of training regimens during growth.

Ontogenetic changes to bone microstructure in an archaeologically derived sample of human ribs

There is considerable variation in the gross morphology and tissue properties among the bones of human infants, children, adolescents, and adults. Using 18 known-age individuals (nfemale =8, nmale =9, nunknown =1; birth to 21years old), from a well-documented cemetery collection, Spitalfields Christ Church, London, UK, this study explores growth-related changes in cortical and trabecular bone microstructure. Micro-CT scans of mid-shaft middle thoracic ribs are used for quantitative analysis. Results are then compared topreviously quantified conventional histomorphometry of the same sample. Total area (Tt.Ar), cortical area (Ct.Ar), cortical thickness (Ct.Th), and the major (Maj.Dm) and minor (Min.Dm) diameters of the rib demonstrate positive correlations with age. Pore density (Po.Dn) increases, but age-related changes to cortical porosity (Ct.Po) appear to be non-linear. Trabecular thickness (Tb.th) and trabecular separation (Tb.Sp) increase with age, whereas trabecular bone pattern factor (Tb.Pf), structural model index (SMI), and connectivity density (Conn.D) decrease with age. Sex-based differences were not identified for any of the variables included in this study. Some samples display clear evidence of diagenetic alteration without corresponding changes in radiopacity, which compromises the reliability of bone mineral density (BMD) data in the study of past populations. Cortical porosity data are not correlated with two-dimensional measures of osteon population density (OPD). This suggests that unfilled resorption spaces contribute more significantly to cortical porosity than do the Haversian canals of secondary osteons. Continued research using complementary imaging techniques and a wide array of histological variables will increase our understanding of age- and sex-specific ontogenetic patterns within and among human populations.

Solar-induced chlorophyll fluorescence and its link to canopy photosynthesis in maize from continuous ground measurements

Remote sensing of solar-induced chlorophyll fluorescence (SIF) provides great potential for estimating gross primary production (GPP) of terrestrial ecosystems. A strong relationship between SIF and GPP has been observed at the seasonal scale from both ground-based and satellite observations. However, variations of SIF due to changes in plant growth stages appear to influence the SIF-GPP relationship. It remains unclear how this relationship is affected by plant growth-related changes, especially for C4 plants such as maize. In this study, continuous in situ measurements for canopy far-red SIF retrieval and GPP calculation were made in maize during the growing season of 2017. Diurnal and seasonal variations of canopy SIF and its yield (SIFyield) were analyzed over different growth stages of maize to understand how they affect the relationship with GPP. The results show that the relationship between SIF and GPP varies with the growth stages of maize during the growing season, indicating that canopy structure has a strong impact on the seasonal variations of canopy SIF and its relation to GPP. Furthermore, we found that SIFyield is significantly correlated with canopy photosynthetic light use efficiency (LUE) at the canopy level throughout the season. However, it is almost uncorrelated with LUE after adjusting for the effects of canopy structure with the structural vegetation index MTVI2. This finding highlights the importance of canopy structure in the relationship between SIFyield and LUE, complicating the use of canopy SIF for tracking vegetation physiological activity. Overall, our observation-based findings show that canopy structure affects the SIF-GPP relationship, strengthening our understanding of the mechanistic link between SIF and photosynthesis.

Image conditions for machine-based face recognition of juvenile faces

Machine-based facial recognition could help law enforcement and other organisations to match juvenile faces more efficiently. It is especially important when dealing with indecent images of children to minimise the workload, and deal with moral and stamina challenges related to human recognition. With growth related changes, juvenile face recognition is challenging. The challenge not only relates to the growth of the child’s face, but also to face recognition in the wild with unconstrained images. The aim of the study was to evaluate how different conditions (i.e. black and white, cropped, blur and resolution reduction) can affect machine-based facial recognition of juvenile age progression. The study used three off-the-shelf facial recognition algorithms (Microsoft Face API, Amazon Rekognition, and Face++) and compared the original images and the age progression images under the four image conditions against an older image of the child. The results showed a decrease in facial similarity with an increased age gap, in comparison to Microsoft; Amazon and Face++ showed higher confidence scores and are more resilient to a change in image condition. The image condition ‘black and white’ and ‘cropped’ had a negative effect across all three APIs. The relationship between age progression images and the younger original image was explored. The results suggest manual age progression images are no more useful than the original image for facial identification of missing children, and Amazon and Face++ performed better with the original image.