Greenhouse Gas Emission Reduction Potential Research Articles

Greenhouse gas emissions reduction potential by using antifouling coatings in a maritime transport industry

There are many measures for decarbonisation of maritime transport, however only a few of such measures have been applied in practice. The method for the assessment of the potential energy savings due to the application of antifouling coatings with lower roughness in terms of decrease in fuel consumption and consequently greenhouse emission is proposed within this paper. Using the proposed method, detailed analysis of the potential benefits of the application of antifouling coatings with lower roughness in terms of fuel savings and greenhouse emission reduction is performed for the first time. In addition, an economic analysis related to the implementation of this technical energy-saving measure is carried out. This study quantifies the fuel savings and carbon dioxide emission reduction that can be attained by applying antifouling coatings with lower roughness on the example of crude oil and bulk carriers. The results have shown that 138 t of fuel can be saved per route with a decrease in carbon dioxide emission up to 430 t for the investigated crude oil carrier. Furthermore, 20.4 t of fuel can be saved per route with a decrease in carbon dioxide emission up to 63.6 t for the investigated bulk carrier. In addition, the return on investment related to the application of antifouling coatings with lower roughness varied approximately from 1.5 to 3 years, which is lower than the usual dry-dock period. Based on these findings, it has been shown that antifouling coatings with lower roughness can be applied even for ships sailing at a lower speed, and that notable savings in fuel consumption and carbon dioxide emission can be attained.

Assessing the sweet sorghum-based ethanol potential on saline\u2013alkali land with DSSAT model and LCA approach

BackgroundThe key problem of non-grain energy plants’ scale development is how to estimate the potential of GHG emission reduction accurately and scientifically. This study presents a method coupled DSSAT (the Decision Support System for Agrotechnology Transfer) and the life cycle assessment (LCA) method to simulate the spatial distribution of sweet sorghum-based ethanol production potential on saline–alkali land. The GHG (greenhouse gas) emission mitigation and net energy gains of the whole life of sweet sorghum-based ethanol production were then analyzed.ResultsThe results of the case study in Dongying, Shandong Province, China showed that developing sweet sorghum-based ethanol on saline–alkali land had GHG emission mitigation and energy potentials. The LC-GHG emission mitigation potential of saline–alkali land in Dongying was estimated at 63.9 thousand t CO2 eq, equivalent to the carbon emission of 43.4 Kt gasoline. The LC-NEG potential was predicted at 5.02 PJ, equivalent to the caloric value of 109 Kt gasoline. On average, LC-GHG emission mitigation and LC-NEG were predicted at 55.09 kg CO2 eq/t ethanol and 4.33 MJ/kg ethanol, respectively.ConclusionsThe question of how to evaluate the potential of sweet sorghum-based ethanol development scientifically was solved primarily in this paper. The results will provide an important theoretical support for planning the bioenergy crops on saline–alkali land and develop the fuel ethanol industry.

Theoretical calculation of biogas production and greenhouse gas emission reduction potential of livestock, poultry and slaughterhouse waste in Bangladesh

The utilisation of available renewable resources and mitigating their impact on the environment boosts sustainable development and helps to achieve the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals. Biogas is a renewable energy option produced through anaerobic digestion of wastes such as livestock excreta and slaughterhouse wastes. Biogas production is treated as one of the leading processes to combat climate change as well as a waste management strategy, especially for a developing country like Bangladesh. It is also vital in meeting future demand for energy utilising indigenous sources. Livestock farming is an important economic activity in rural areas of Bangladesh. Thus, the livestock waste production, estimated biogas generation capacity, electricity generation potential, greenhouse gas (GHG) reduction potential, and estimated biofertiliser generation capacity of Bangladesh were determined for the financial year 2018–2019 in this study. The results show that Bangladesh had 486.77 million tons per year of animal waste products to produce 27,923.72 million m3/year biogas in 2018–2019. This biogas potential corresponds to a theoretical potential to produce a 512 PJ/year heating value and electric power of 50 TW h/year. Besides, about 29.232 million tons per year of organic fertiliser can be produced with the residues of the biogas plants. The findings of this study will contribute to guiding policymakers and governments who will concentrate on the use of animal waste in biogas industries and livestock farming as a potential bioenergy source to meet national energy demand.

Greenhouse gas emissions reduction and rice yield potential under bio-fertilizer application

Rice cultivation is one of the largest contributors of CH4 emission to the atmosphere. It contributes approximately 5 to 19% of the total global CH4 emissions. The aim of this research was to investigate the effect of using of bio-fertilizers on greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and rice yield. The experiment was conducted from September 2016 to January 2017 in experimental station of Indonesian Agricultural Environmental Research Institute, Pati Central Java. This experiment used completely randomized design with three treatments and five replications. The treatments were (1) no amendments (control), (2) rice straw 3 t ha−1 and (3) rice straw 3 t ha−1 + bio-fertilizer 10 L ha−1. The CH4, CO2, and N2O gas fluxes were measured weekly during the rice-growing season by using closed chamber method. The results of this study showed that application of straw + bio-fertilizers treatment reduced GHG emissions of CH4, N2O, and CO2 by 9.2, 14.78, and 27.68%, respectively compared to the application of straw treatment. The application of straw + bio-fertilizers treatment decreased global warming potential (GWP) by 10.75% compared to the application of straw. The GHG index (GHGI) of straw + bio-fertilizer treatment decreased 8.27% compare to control. The results suggested that application of bio-fertilizer could support environmentally agriculture in supporting food self-sufficiency.

Life-cycle assessment of treating slaughterhouse waste using anaerobic digestion systems

The meat industry in the US generates considerable amount of slaughterhouse waste (SHW), which is typically converted into more useable products through the rendering process. Although rendering generates sellable fat and meal commodities, it has large environmental impacts because it is energy intensive. Anaerobic digestion (AD) is a promising technology for treating SHW and reducing environmental impact through biogas production to generate heat or electricity, as well as by enabling nutrient recovery and pathogen reduction. This study compared the life-cycle energy use and global warming impact of treating SHW with traditional rendering with AD to produce heat and electricity. The study also considered the co-digestion of SHW with the organic fraction of municipal solid waste (OFMSW) and sewage sludge. A cradle-to-grave life-cycle assessment (LCA) method was used to quantify the energy use and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions of these systems for treating SHW. We compared three scenarios: (1) AD of SHW, (2) Co-AD of SHW with OFMSW, and (3) Co-AD of SHW with sewage sludge to reference systems of simple rendering and composting. The study findings revealed that the total cradle-to-gate energy use and GHG emissions by treating SHW with AD and co-AD were 0.5−6.7 GJ/1000 kg-SHW and 400−834 kg-CO₂-eq/1000 kg-SHW, whereas for the rendering control scenarios total cradle-to-gate energy use and GHG emissions were 1.9 GJ/1000 kg-SHW and 96.4 kg-CO₂-eq/1000 kg-SHW, respectively. However, considering all the benefits of treating SHW with co-AD, including the displacement of fossil fuel and electricity and nitrogen fertilizers generated as system outputs, these systems perform better than the rendering process. Compared to the reference systems, the GHG reduction potential of treating SHW with co-AD varied between 426.8 and 524.0 kg-CO₂-eq/1000 kg-SHW. Among all input parameters, methane (CH₄) leak from the AD system, and nitrogen fertilizer displacement were the most sensitive parameters affecting the results. By implementing AD of SHW in meat industries in the southeast US, the energy production and GHG emissions reduction potential were estimated to be 22–29 × 10⁶ GJ and 1.6–2.0 × 10 9 kg-CO₂-eq per year, respectively. The results indicate that the AD of SHW can substantially reduce GHG emissions of the US meat industry as well as produce bioenergy to provide energy security in the US. • Co-AD of SHW with a co-substrate can produce energy of 6.03–7.60 GJ/1000 kg-SHW. • Co-AD of SHW with sewage sludge can reduce up to 524.0 kg-CO₂-eq/1000 kg-SHW. • Methane leak and fertilizer displacement substantially impact GHG emissions of AD. • AD of SHW in the southeast US can reduce GHG emissions by 2.0 × 10⁹ kg-CO₂-eq/year.

Greenhouse Gas Emission Reduction Potentials in Europe by Sector: A Bootstrap-Based Nonparametric Efficiency Analysis

Greenhouse Gas Emission Reduction Potentials in Europe by Sector: A Bootstrap-Based Nonparametric Efficiency Analysis

Improving robustness of LCA results through stakeholder engagement: A case study of emerging oil sands technologies

Life cycle assessments can help inform decision-making about greenhouse gas (GHG) emission reduction opportunities but are often not embraced by stakeholders associated with industries where study results are highly scrutinized and often contentious. This project was motivated by stakeholder interest in understanding open source life cycle models (the Oil Production Greenhouse Gas Emissions Estimator, OPGEE, and the Petroleum Refinery Life Cycle Inventory Model, PRELIM) and how accurately they can estimate emissions for existing oil sands projects and emerging technologies. We evaluate the robustness of these models and improve them using data from three existing oil sands projects (mining + upgrading, mining + dilution, and steam assisted gravity drainage, SAGD, + dilution). The models are then applied to estimate the GHG emissions reduction potential for two emerging in situ oil sands technologies. We find that, when boundaries are aligned, OPGEE can generate upstream GHG emissions estimates for the projects modeled within 1-4% of company reported GHG emissions data. Extending the boundary to include indirect (life cycle) emissions can lead to a doubling in upstream GHG emissions intensity. The two emerging technologies evaluated in the study can reduce upstream emissions by 14-19% compared to a SAGD project operating at the same reservoir, or 1.4-1.9% on a well-to-wheel basis. This work contributes a revised process of conducting LCAs that includes stakeholder input throughout and results in more robust and transparent estimates of emissions from deploying existing and emerging technologies.

Scenario Analysis for GHG Emission Reduction Potential of the Building Sector for New City in South Korea

A new government report on climate change shows that global emissions of greenhouse gases have increased to very high levels despite various policies to reduce climate change. Building energy accounts for 40% of the world’s energy consumption and accounts for 33% of the world’s greenhouse gas emissions. This study applied the LEAP (Long-range energy alternatives planning) model and Bass diffusion method for predicting the total energy consumption and GHG (Greenhouse Gas) emissions from the residential and commercial building sector of Sejong City in South Korea. Then, using the Bass diffusion model, three scenarios were analyzed (REST: Renewable energy supply target, BES: Building energy saving, BEP: Building energy policy) for GHG reduction. The GHG emissions for Sejong City for 2015–2030 were analyzed, and the past and future GHG emissions of the city were predicted in a Business-as-Usual (BAU) scenario. In the REST scenario, the GHG emissions would attain a 24.5% reduction and, in the BES scenario, the GHG emissions would attain 12.81% reduction by 2030. Finally, the BEP scenario shows the potential for a 19.81% GHG reduction. These results could be used to guide the planning and development of the new city.

Material Flows and Greenhouse Gas Emissions Reduction Potential of Decentralized Composting in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Case Study in Tiassalé, Côte d’Ivoire

Despite many composting initiatives implemented in recent years throughout Sub-Saharan Africa, there is yet a lack of data on material flows and the potential contribution of decentralized composting towards greenhouse gas (GHG) mitigation. This study fills this gap assessing flows, emissions reduction and other environmental benefits of decentralized composting, based on a pilot composting facility implemented in the municipality of Tiassalé in Côte d’Ivoire. Primary data collected at the site were visualized with the STAN version 2.6 software developed at the Vienna University of Technology (Austria), for material flows, while carbon emissions reduction was estimated using the UNFCCC methods. Results show that in 2017, from the 59.4 metric tons of organic waste processed by this pilot station, 14.2 metric tons of mature compost was produced, which correspond to 24% of the input mass (on wet weight basis). On dry weight basis, mature compost represents 36% of the input mass. The nutrient content of the compost is in line with data from literature on sub-Saharan African compost, and heavy metal contamination fulfils both French and German compost standards. Concerning the GHG emissions reduction potential, the results show that with this composting scenario, 87% of the baseline emissions occurring in open dumping can be avoided.

Mitigating Curtailment and Carbon Emissions through Load Migration between Data Centers

Summary As the share of variable renewable energy (VRE) grows in the electric grid, so does the risk of curtailment. While energy storage and hydrogen production have been proposed as solutions to the curtailment problem, they often pose technological and economic challenges. Here, we analyze the potential of data center load migration for mitigating curtailment and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Using historical hourly electricity generation, curtailment, and typical data center server utilization data, we simulate the effect of migrating data center workloads from the fossil-fuel-heavy PJM to the renewable-heavy CAISO. The results show that load migration within the existing data center capacity during the curtailment hours in CAISO has the potential to reduce 113–239 KtCO2e per year of GHG emissions and absorb up to 62% of the total curtailment with negative abatement costs in 2019. Our study demonstrates the overlooked role that data centers can play for VRE integration and GHG emissions mitigation.

Greenhouse gas emission abatement potential and associated costs of integrating renewable and low carbon energy technologies into the Canadian oil sands

The purpose of this research is to evaluate the greenhouse gas reduction potential and associated costs of integrating renewable energy technologies into Canada’s oil sands . There is very limited analysis in the literature focused on the integration of renewable technology options in oil sands processes. This research addresses the gap by developing a novel framework that applies market penetration and bottom-up energy modeling techniques. A total of 27 long-term scenarios across oil sands extraction, upgrading, and electricity generation were investigated. The results show that up to 84 million tonnes of greenhouse gas emissions abatement (2.3% of oil sands GHG emissions) at a marginal greenhouse gas abatement cost of $1.3/tCO2e is available under a $30/tonne carbon incentive. Scenarios with no carbon incentive resulted in 69 million tonnes less greenhouse gas emissions abatement and a marginal greenhouse gas abatement cost increase of $36/tCO2e. Nuclear-based scenarios mitigated the largest amount of greenhouse gases and had the lowest marginal abatement costs. Geothermal energy, bioenergy, and hydropower were cost effective in certain scenarios but had limited greenhouse gas emission reduction potential. Wind and solar technologies failed to displace existing processes in the scenarios considered. The results from this study may be of value to government policy makers and industry representatives aiming to reduce greenhouse gases.

Climate Change Mitigation Policies Targeting Households and Addressing Energy Poverty in European Union

Climate change mitigation measures linked to households’ energy consumption have huge greenhouse gases (GHG) emission reduction potential and positive impact on energy poverty reduction. However, measures such as renovation of residential buildings or installation of micro generation technologies based on renewable energy sources have not realized their full energy saving and GHG emission reduction potentials, due to the energy efficiency paradox and other barriers. These climate change mitigation policies targeting the households’ sector can deliver extra benefits such as energy poverty reduction and implementation of the energy justice principle; therefore, they require more attention of scholars and policy makers. The aim of this paper is to analyze the energy poverty and climate change mitigation issues in EU households based on a systematic literature review, and to provide future research paths and policy recommendations. Based on the systematic literature review, this paper develops an integrated framework for addressing energy poverty, just carbon free energy transition and climate change mitigation issues in the EU. Additionally, we argue that more targeted climate change policies and measures are necessary in the light of the shortcomings of current measures to reduce energy poverty and realize climate change mitigation potential linked to energy consumption in households.

Assessment of greenhouse gas emissions reduction potential in an industrial park in China

Industrial parks play a significant role in economic development while consuming a great deal of energy and emitting a lot of greenhouse gas (GHG). Meanwhile, under the pressure of limiting the global average temperature rise to 2 degrees Celsius as proposed by the Paris agreement, industrial parks have compelling obligation to reduce GHG emissions, driving them on the path to low-carbon development. This study established the GHG emission inventory and assessed carbon emission reduction potential in an industrial park. The GHG emission inventories were accounted from 2013 to 2017, including energy-related emission, industrial processes related emission and indirect emission from electricity. Then, three scenarios were designed to assess carbon emission reduction potential, as follows: industrial waste heat recovery scenario (WHR scenario), utilization of renewable energy (RNE scenario) and energy efficiency improvement scenario (EEI scenario). The results show that the total amount of GHG emission in 2017 was 14.9 Mt CO2e, twice more than 2013, and the energy-related GHG emission was the dominant sector in the total GHG emission. Scenario analysis indicates that the total carbon emission reduction of the three approaches is 3.29 Mt CO2. Among them, the measures of low-pressure waste heat recovery and energy efficiency improvement have great potential for carbon emission reduction in industrial parks. This study could provide a comprehensive understanding of GHG emission mitigation to improve the energy and environmental performance at the industrial park.

A Comparative Study on the Reduction Effect in Greenhouse Gas Emissions between the Combined Heat and Power Plant and Boiler

The purpose of this study is to compare the effect of a reduction in greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions between the combined heat and power (CHP) plant and boiler, which became the main energy-generating facilities of “anaerobic digestion” (AD) biogas produced in Korea, and analyze the GHG emissions in a life cycle. Full-scale data from two Korean “wastewater treatment plants” (WWTPs), which operated boilers and CHP plants fueled by biogas, were used in order to estimate the reduction potential of GHG emissions based on a “life cycle assessment” (LCA) approach. The GHG emissions of biogas energy facilities were divided into pre-manufacturing stages, production stages, pretreatment stages, and combustion stages, and the GHG emissions by stages were calculated by dividing them into Scope1, Scope2, and Scope3. Based on the calculated reduction intensity, a comparison of GHG reduction effects was made by assuming a scenario in which the amount of biogas produced at domestic sewage treatment plants used for boiler heating is replaced by a CHP plant. Four different scenarios for utilizing biogas are considered based on the GHG emission potential of each utilization plant. The biggest reduction was in the scenario of using all of the biogas in CHP plants and heating the anaerobic digester through district heating. GHG emissions in a life cycle were slightly higher in boilers than in CHP plants because GHG emissions generated by pre-treatment facilities were smaller than other emissions, and lower Scope2 emissions in CHP plants were due to their own use of electricity produced. It was confirmed that the CHP plant using biogas is superior to the boiler in terms of GHG reduction in a life cycle.

Climate Change Mitigation in Households between Market Failures and Psychological Barriers

Though there are areas of climate change mitigation linked to household’s energy consumption having huge greenhouse gas (GHG) emission reduction potential as energy renovation or installation of micro generation technologies using renewable energy sources, these GHG emission reduction potentials are not realized so far. The main input of the paper is to overcome this gap and to provide a systematic review of the main barriers of climate change mitigation behavior linked to energy consumption in households and to develop policies to overcome these barriers. The main policies and measures to reduce GHG emissions of energy combustion in households are promotion of renewable energy consumption and energy efficiency improvements however, these policies have been not successful in overcoming some important barriers of climate change mitigation in households. The empirical evidence of behavioral failures is deepened in this paper and the correlation between market barriers, unsuccessful climate change mitigation policies and behavioral and psychological barriers is provided based on systematic literature review.

Willingness to Pay for Renovation of Multi-Flat Buildings and to Share the Costs of Renovation

The paper deals with the problems linked to the energy renovation of multi-apartment buildings and developed a case study in Lithuania with the aim to assess the household’s willingness to pay for energy renovation and to define the main barriers preventing the households from making decisions to renovate their apartments in residential buildings. Energy renovation provides huge energy savings and greenhouse gas emissions reduction potential and though policies and measures exist to promote large scale energy renovation, there are still many barriers and the pace of energy renovation is still very slow, especially in new EU member states and former Soviet Union members. These countries have inherited old, energy inefficient residential buildings from their Soviet past, and their inhabitants are locked in energy poverty because of their inability to renovate their apartments. This paper analyzed the current situation in the selected country and presents the results of a case study on willingness to pay (WTP) for energy renovation in Lithuanian residential buildings. The survey of 104 Lithuanian households living in unrenovated multi-flat buildings was conducted. The 39 multiple choice questions were asked in order to define the main barriers and drivers of energy renovation. The main results of this pilot study indicated that there are several important organizational and economic barriers for energy renovation in multi-flat buildings and current policies and support schemes have not addressed them in a proper way. The high heating bills and low heat comfort in apartments were the main drivers of energy renovation decision-making for households, however, inadequate state support, reluctance to take a loan due to low income, and inability to make collective decisions on renovation due to the lack of cooperation and housing association were the main barriers that prevented them from this step. New innovative schemes like the Energy Service Companies ESCO model with consolidated billing can be applied to address the identified barriers.

Sustainability in Maritime Sector: Waste Management Alternatives Evaluated in a Circular Carbon Economy Perspective

Sustainability and waste management on board are key issues that need to be addressed by the maritime sector also in terms of greenhouse gas emissions (GHG). With the aim of evaluating waste management alternatives in a circular economy perspective, the study examines a combined system for the optimisation of ship waste management and assesses its possible use for energy purposes. Different systems are analysed in relation to their GHG emission reduction potential regardless of routes and ports of destination. A SWOT (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats) analysis was carried out on waste management alternatives in order to preliminary identify their potential in terms of GHG emissions reduction, cost, environmental sustainability, methodological coherence, feasibility and replicability. Following this analysis, two case studies of particular interest were identified: (1) the thermo-chemical treatment of waste oils and sludge to obtain fuel oils; (2) the installation of a waste-to-energy plant and subsequent energy recovery on board. UNFCCC (United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change) methodologies were applied to these two case studies to calculate GHG emission reduction resulting from their implementation. The obtained results are presented with the aim of supporting sustainable waste management strategies on board in a circular carbon economy perspective.

Uncertainty Analysis of Embedded Energy and Greenhouse Gas Emissions Using BIM in Early Design Stages

With current efforts to increase energy efficiency and reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions of buildings in the operational phase, the share of embedded energy (EE) and embedded GHG emissions is increasing. In early design stages, chances to influence these factors in a positive way are greatest, but very little and vague information about the future building is available. Therefore, this study introduces a building information modeling (BIM)-based method to analyze the contribution of the main functional parts of buildings to find embedded energy demand and GHG emission reduction potentials. At the same time, a sensitivity analysis shows the variance in results due to the uncertainties inherent in early design to avoid misleadingly precise results. The sensitivity analysis provides guidance to the design team as to where to strategically reduce uncertainties in order to increase precision of the overall results. A case study shows that the variability and sensitivity of the results differ between environmental indicators and construction types (wood or concrete). The case study contribution analysis reveals that the building’s structure is the main contributor of roughly half of total GHG emissions if the main structural material is reinforced concrete. Exchanging reinforced concrete for a wood structure reduces total GHG emissions by 25%, with GHG emissions of the structure contributing 33% and windows 30%. Variability can be reduced systematically by first reducing vagueness in geometrical and technical specifications and subsequently in the amount of interior walls. The study shows how a simplified and fast BIM-based calculation provides valuable guidance in early design stages.

Scenarios evaluation on the greenhouse gases emission reduction potential in Iran's thermal power plants based on the LEAP model.

Over the past few years, the pace of fossil fuel consumption has witnessed an accelerating trend across the world which has been really noticeable especially for the power generation sector. With regard to its global importance, the environment must be also preserved and emissions of pollutants and greenhouse gases (GHGs) as well as environmental costs need to be moderated. Given the urgency of energy preservation and environmental issues, the process of electricity generation should be evaluated. Accordingly, elimination of conditions along with prediction of energy consumption and pollutant emissions have been performed through energy simulation and modeling software tools, e.g., Long-range Energy Alternatives Planning System (LEAP). The energy consumption in thermal power plants for 2035 is estimated to be 209.7, 153.5, and 132.0 Bcm respectively for Reference (REF), Efficiency based on 5-Year National Development Plan (E5P), and Efficiency similar to UK (EUK) scenarios using efficiency improvement scenario of thermal power plants in Iran. GHG emissions for 2035 are thus predicted by 456.8 MtCO2-eq for the REF scenario, and 332.6 and 285.1 MtCO2-eq for the E5P and the EUK ones, respectively. Environmental costs for electricity generation system will also diminish via applying scenarios in this sector and its least amount, that is, US$835.8 million is related to the EUK scenario. Accomplishing goals such as better preservation of fossil resources and the environment will be consequently facilitated through improved efficiency and effectiveness of consumption of energy resources. To meet the objectives of environmental preservation, it is suggested to completely implement development plans and also make attempts to promote the technology of thermal power plants in Iran similar to that in developed countries. This study also compares the findings with those reported in recently published investigations.

Assessment of Sectoral Greenhouse Gas Emission Reduction Potentials for 2030

The aim of this article is to provide an overview of greenhouse gas emission reduction potentials for 2030 based on the assessment of detailed sectoral studies. The overview updates a previous assessment that dates back more than ten years. We find a total emission reduction potential of 30–36 GtCO2e compared to a current-policies baseline of 61 GtCO2e. The energy production and conversion sector is responsible for about one third of this potential and the agriculture, buildings, forestry, industry, and transport sectors all contribute substantially to the total potential. The potential for 2030 is enough to bridge the gap towards emissions pathways that are compatible with a maximum global temperature rise of 1.5–2 °C compared to preindustrial levels.