Control Greenhouse Gas Emissions Research Articles

Coordination mechanisms in a two‐stage green supply chain: analyzing the impact of transportation decisions on environment

AbstractIn this study, the distributor in charge of freight transport is responsible for replenishing the buyer's inventory level, with the government intervening in the supply chain to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. In the proposed model, a periodic review replenishment policy is applied by the buyer, whereby the distributor is responsible for determining the optimal review period. Therefore, a game theory approach is used to show how government intervention influences the replenishment decisions, transportation, and safety factor. Due to the government constraint imposed to control GHG emissions, the distributor has to set a longer review period involving fewer trucks, resulting in his/her decision leading to more shortage costs for the buyer. The results of four numerical examples indicate that the buyer is not given any incentives to cooperate with the distributor due to his/her reduced revenue. Hence, this study proposes two‐part tariff (TPT) and cost‐sharing (CS) contracts to increase the profitability of both players. Finally, the results show that both coordination mechanisms can effectively coordinate the supply chain, but the TPT contract can also reduce GHG emissions. Furthermore, in all scenarios where the government constraint is implemented, the number of unfilled trucks in each replenishment inventory has been decreased.

Investigation of carbon dioxide photoreduction process in a laboratory-scale photoreactor by computational fluid dynamic and reaction kinetic modeling

The production of solar fuels via the photoreduction of carbon dioxide to methane by titanium oxide is a promising process to control greenhouse gas emissions and provide alternative renewable fuels. Although several reaction mechanisms have been proposed, the detailed steps are still ambiguous, and the limiting factors are not well defined. To improve our understanding of the mechanisms of carbon dioxide photoreduction, a multi-physics model was developed using COMSOL. The novelty of this work is the computational fluid dynamic model combined with the novel carbon dioxide photoreduction intrinsic reaction kinetic model, which was built based on three-steps, namely gas adsorption, surface reactions and desorption, while the ultraviolet light intensity distribution was simulated by the Gaussian distribution model and Beer-Lambert model. The carbon dioxide photoreduction process conducted in a laboratory-scale reactor under different carbon dioxide and water moisture partial pressures was then modeled based on the intrinsic kinetic model. It was found that the simulation results for methane, carbon monoxide and hydrogen yield match the experiments in the concentration range of 10−4 mol·m−3 at the low carbon dioxide and water moisture partial pressure. Finally, the factors of adsorption site concentration, adsorption equilibrium constant, ultraviolet light intensity and temperature were evaluated.

Reasons, Economic Instruments and Suggestions for China to Achieve Carbon Neutrality

China's declaration to the international community that it will reach a carbon peak by 2030 and a carbon neutral by 2060 is of great significance to the global promotion of the objectives of the Paris Agreement and the improvement of climate issues, and has a positive and far-reaching impact on China's high-quality development. This paper explains the origin, reason and solutions of carbon neutralization, and analyzes the high-quality development opportunity of carbon peak towards carbon neutralization and the net zero carbon transformation and development in the new era of ecological civilization. To achieve carbon neutrality, we need to control greenhouse gas emissions from the source. Economic instrument is one of the important means, such as carbon pricing and carbon tax. Finally, it puts forward policy suggestions on carbon neutralization, such as the zero carbon technology, green finance and building circular economy.

Low‐carbon economic operation for integrated energy system considering carbon trading mechanism

AbstractCarbon trading mechanism is an effective means to control greenhouse gas emissions. This paper focuses on the low‐carbon economic operation of the integrated energy system under carbon trading mechanism in China. The integrated energy system includes the energy storage, ground source heat pump, and other equipment. The objective of this paper was to minimize the annual total cost of the system considering the carbon trading cost and study the operation modes under different carbon trading prices by commercial optimization software. The simulation results show the operation modes in summer are changed obviously with the increase of the carbon trading prices, while the operation modes in winter basically are not changed with the fluctuation of the carbon trading prices; under the carbon trading mechanism, the integrated energy system can not only reduce the carbon emissions, but also reduce the annual total cost through carbon trading, which shows its advantages and good development prospect. In addition, the setting of the carbon emission quota has a direct impact on the economy of the enterprises. Furthermore, the ground source heat pump and the electric refrigeration units can stabilize the fluctuation of the equipment output caused by the change of natural gas prices in this integrated energy system.

FUTURE SMART CITIES TO SOLVE THE URBAN PROBLEMS IN EGYPT THE HIGHER INSTITUTE OF ENGINNERING, THEBES ACADEMY

The rapid urbanization and changes taking place in the cities of the world since the past few decades, which led to the orientation of strategies for preserving the environment and economic resources and searching for new and renewable energies, reuse ,and recycling in an integrative way with people through digital technology or information technologies in order to enhance the quality of life and began to pay attention to establishment of smart cities with a goal achieving goals by linking human capital ,social capital and information and communication technology infrastructure to tackle urban issues and competitiveness while ensuring that the needs of yall present and future with regard to the economic ,social and environmental aspects. The research includes concepts of smart cities such as digital city, information city, existing cities, urbanization and smart city components. The research problem is the lack of knowledge of the principles of smart cities in the urban orientation through the use of communication and information technology (CIT) as a means to achieve its goals. The research hypothesis stating the adoption of the principles of the smart city model for the urban environment for knowledge-based cities, as the smart city road restores the method of controlling greenhouse gas emissions, protection from crime and ensuring security, new systems for smart energy, smart transportation, smart water management, and smart government.

Greenhouse gases emissions from riparian wetlands: an example from the Inner Mongolia grassland region in China

Abstract. Gradual riparian wetland drying is increasingly sensitive to global warming and contributes to climate change. Riparian wetlands play a significant role in regulating carbon and nitrogen cycles. In this study, we analyzed the emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), and nitrous oxide (N2O) from riparian wetlands in the Xilin River basin to understand the role of these ecosystems in greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Moreover, the impact of the catchment hydrology and soil property variations on GHG emissions over time and space was evaluated. Our results demonstrate that riparian wetlands emit larger amounts of CO2 (335–2790 mgm-2h-1 in the wet season and 72–387 mgm-2h-1 in the dry season) than CH4 and N2O to the atmosphere due to high plant and soil respiration. The results also reveal clear seasonal variations and spatial patterns along the transects in the longitudinal direction. N2O emissions showed a spatiotemporal pattern similar to that of CO2 emissions. Near-stream sites were the only sources of CH4 emissions, while the other sites served as sinks for these emissions. Soil moisture content and soil temperature were the essential factors controlling GHG emissions, and abundant aboveground biomass promoted the CO2, CH4, and N2O emissions. Moreover, compared to different types of grasslands, riparian wetlands were the potential hotspots of GHG emissions in the Inner Mongolian region. Degradation of downstream wetlands has reduced the soil carbon pool by approximately 60 %, decreased CO2 emissions by approximately 35 %, and converted the wetland from a CH4 and N2O source to a sink. Our study showed that anthropogenic activities have extensively changed the hydrological characteristics of the riparian wetlands and might accelerate carbon loss, which could further affect GHG emissions.

Real-Time Management of Vessel Carbon Dioxide Emissions Based on Automatic Identification System Database Using Deep Learning

In this study, we propose an effective method using deep learning to strengthen real-time vessel carbon dioxide emission management. We propose a method to predict real-time carbon dioxide emissions of the vessel in three steps: (1) convert the trajectory data of the fixed time interval into a spatial–temporal sequence, (2) apply a long short-term memory (LSTM) model to predict the future trajectory and vessel status data of the vessel, and (3) predict the carbon dioxide emissions. Automatic identification system (AIS) database of a liquefied natural gas (LNG) vessel were selected as the sample and we reconstructed the trajectory data with a fixed time interval using cubic spline interpolation. Applying the interpolated AIS data, the carbon dioxide emissions of the vessel were calculated based on the International Towing Tank Conference (ITTC) recommended procedures. The experimental results are twofold. First, it reveals that vessel emissions are currently underestimated. This study clearly indicates that the actual carbon dioxide emissions are higher than those reported. The finding offers insight into how to accurately measure the emissions of vessels, and hence, better execute a greenhouse gases (GHGs) reduction strategy. Second, the LSTM model has a better trajectory prediction performance than the recurrent neural network (RNN) model. The errors of the trajectory endpoint and carbon dioxide emissions were small, which shows that the LSTM model is suitable for spatial–temporal data prediction with excellent performance. Therefore, this study offers insights to strengthen the real-time management and control of vessel greenhouse gas emissions and handle those in a more efficient way.

Towards estimation of CO2 adsorption on highly porous MOF-based adsorbents using gaussian process regression approach

In recent years, new developments in controlling greenhouse gas emissions have been implemented to address the global climate conservation concern. Indeed, the earth's average temperature is being increased mainly due to burning fossil fuels, explicitly releasing high amounts of CO2 into the atmosphere. Therefore, effective capture techniques are needed to reduce the concentration of CO2. In this regard, metal organic frameworks (MOFs) have been known as the promising materials for CO2 adsorption. Hence, study on the impact of the adsorption conditions along with the MOFs structural properties on their ability in the CO2 adsorption will open new doors for their further application in CO2 separation technologies as well. However, the high cost of the corresponding experimental study together with the instrument's error, render the use of computational methods quite beneficial. Therefore, the present study proposes a Gaussian process regression model with four kernel functions to estimate the CO2 adsorption in terms of pressure, temperature, pore volume, and surface area of MOFs. In doing so, 506 CO2 uptake values in the literature have been collected and assessed. The proposed GPR models performed very well in which the exponential kernel function, was shown as the best predictive tool with R2 value of 1. Also, the sensitivity analysis was employed to investigate the effectiveness of input variables on the CO2 adsorption, through which it was determined that pressure is the most determining parameter. As the main result, the accurate estimate of CO2 adsorption by different MOFs is obtained by briefly employing the artificial intelligence concept tools.

Material Efficiency design strategies for the circular transition

The history of lightness might not only recount aeroplanes and low-density materials, it might also speak of a need for dematerialisation consistent with the control of resource consumption and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Following the Paris Agreement, carbon neutrality policies had initially focused on mitigation actions for energy efficiency and low-carbon sources. Although crucial for the materials industry, other strategies, especially on the demand side, are possible to reduce their production. In the context of the circular economy applied to the built environment, Material Efficiency (ME) constitutes a set of actions for circular design for which functions, configurations and construction processes need to be reinvented.

Enhanced degradation of petroleum hydrocarbons by immobilizing multiple bacteria on wheat bran biochar and its effect on greenhouse gas emission in saline-alkali soil

In this study, an immobilization method for forming and keeping dominant petroleum degradation bacteria was successfully developed by immobilizing Pseudomonas, Acinetobacter, and Sphingobacterium genus bacteria on wheat bran biochar pyrolyzed at 300, 500, and 700 °C. The removal efficiency indicated that the highest TPHs (total petroleum hydrocarbons) removal rate of BC500–4 B (biochar pyrolyzed at 500 °C with four kinds of petroleum bacteria) was 58.31%, which was higher than that of BC500 (36.91%) and 4 B (43.98%) used alone. The soil properties revealed that the application of biochar increased the content of organic matter, available phosphorus, and available potassium, but decreased pH and ammonium nitrogen content in soil. Bacterial community analysis suggested that the formation of dominant degrading community represented by Acinetobacter played key roles in TPHs removal. The removal rate of alkanes was similar to that of TPHs. Besides, biochar and immobilized material can also mediate greenhouse gas emission while removing petroleum, biochar used alone and immobilized all could improve CO2 emission, but decrease N2O emission and had no significant impact on CH4 emission. Furthermore, it was the first time to found the addition of Acinetobacter genus bacteria can accelerate the process of forming a dominant degrading community in wheat bran biochar consortium. This study focused on controlling greenhouse gas emission which provides a wider application of combining biochar and bacteria in petroleum soil remediation.

Measurement and Enhancement of Environmental Responsibility Level of an Energy Enterprise in the Context of Energy Transformation

Energy transformation requires energy producers to pursue energy conservation and emission reduction, control greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, and produce and supply clean low-carbon energy. Based on the principle of balanced scorecard, this paper selects the data on China Shenhua Energy Company Limited (China Shenhua) of 2015–2019, systematically analyzes the influence of energy transformation on environmental protection effect of energy enterprises, and measures the environmental responsibility level (ERL). The results show that, in the context of energy transformation, Chine Shenhua always attaches great importance to ecoenvironment protection, vigorously develops clean, safe, and efficient energy, implements key tasks like green mine construction and ultra-low emission upgrading, promotes pollution control and ecoenvironment governance, takes measures of energy conservation and emission reduction, and continuously steps up the level of carbon emissions control, thereby steadily improving ecological civilization.

Global climate negotiations resume

Climate change continues to intensify. Last month, record-breaking high temperatures —above 40 °C—scorched the US Pacific Northwest and southwestern Canada. North America marked its hottest June, and Europe sweltered through its second-warmest June on record, according to the European Union–supported Copernicus Climate Change Service . As temperatures rise, talks sponsored by the United Nations aimed at curtailing this environmental crisis are restarting after pausing for the COVID-19 pandemic. Negotiators are now meeting virtually, resuming where their talks ended 18 months ago at a previous global climate conference, in Madrid. Their goal is to finish a set of rules for countries to follow as they fulfill pledges made under the 2015 Paris Agreement to control greenhouse gas emissions. Reducing these emissions will require innovations from the chemical sciences in materials, energy efficiency, batteries, renewable energy, and technologies to capture and sequester carbon dioxide . Negotiators hope to wrap up details in

Methane emission quantification from municipal waste landfills: models and computer software-a case study of Long An Province, Vietnam.

Vietnam has been one of the nations strongly affected by climate change; hence, finding and promoting solutions in order to adapt and proactively respond to climate change have played an extremely significant role. A strategy of developing a low-carbon economy with eco-friendly production and consumption models, limiting the use of fossil fuels, and rising clean as well as renewable energy have been built with the aim to reduce total greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions by roughly 8% by the year 2030 compared to the business-as-usual (BAU) scenario under the Paris Agreement 2015, in particular, focusing on producing a plan to drop considerably methane (CH4) emission and recover energy from landfill sites as the waste sector has been the third-highest GHG contributor in Vietnam. This study concentrates on forecasting and evaluating CH4, CO, H2S, and CH3SH emissions for a case study in the Mekong Delta region of Vietnam: in specific, two dumping sites of Thanh Hoa and Kien Tuong according to four different scenarios so that the landfill gas (LFG) emissions are controlled under the local authority orientation of installing a gas collection system and treating captured gases by an LFG flaring approach from 2021 to 2030. Quantification of the generated LFG is carried out using a mathematical modeling method having validation with field measured data, which is a WebGIS software named EnLandFill with integrated mathematical models, environmental information, and databases allowing analysis of the main influence of two L0 and k factors on LFG emission levels. On the one hand, based on the development planning of Long An province from 2021 to 2030, the municipal solid waste (MSW) volume is estimated at around 3.5 million tonnes and the potential waste generation index is predicted between 0.7 and 1.2 kg person-1 day-1. A large amount of CH4 emissions are considered to be a remarkable contributor to GHG emissions. It can be seen that there are about 32.1-253.6 million m3 CH4 (or equivalent to 512-589 thousand tCO2-eq) and 1.0-5.1 million m3 CH4 (or equivalent to 16-81 thousand tCO2-eq) created at Thanh Hoa and Kien Tuong dumping sites, respectively, under the established scenarios in the 2021-2030 period. On the other hand, the proposal of scenario 4 is found to be the optimal solution for GHG emission control and decline from this study area in the next years. Furthermore, the obtained study outcomes are considered as a basis for planning and managing the issues of MSW in Long An province until 2050 towards a circular economy.

Robust decisions for regulated sustainable manufacturing with partial demand information: Mandatory emission capacity versus emission tax

While emission tax and mandatory emission capacity regulations are widely implemented to control greenhouse gas emissions, it remains unclear which will lead to better performance in an uncertain environment. Furthermore, a regulated sustainable manufacturer with only partial demand information may be challenged by more uncertainties than a manufacturer would be in a free market without regulation. These factors motivate us to examine the effects of two types of emission reduction regulations on the optimal production decisions of a manufacturer facing stochastic demand with partial distribution information. Based on distributionally robust newsvendor models, we use the Hurwicz decision criterion to build robust optimization models for a regulated sustainable manufacturer. We first solve the closed-form expressions of the optimal production quantities for two optimization models; then, we compare their expected profits and carbon emissions. The comparisons show that an emission tax may be more favorable than mandatory emission capacity regulation in terms of the manufacturer’s environmental performance. A numerical study with a Taguchi experiment is performed to compare the two policies and to test the robustness. We find interesting insights: For manufacturers, a decision maker with an optimistic attitude to demand uncertainty, can gain higher profits and emit less carbon, which differs from the results of some previous research. For regulators, with a large carbon cap, mandatory emission capacity regulation can lead manufacturers to gain higher profits and emit more carbon than those achieved under emission tax regulation, which provides new insights for policy makers.

Multi-objective optimization of petroleum product logistics in Eastern Indonesia region

The transportation sector is one of the largest fuel consumers and pollutant contributors worldwide. The International Maritime Organization predicts that the greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from transportation will be increasing significantly until 2050, driven by the growth in global maritime trade. Managing logistics distribution routes is considered a possible approach for controlling GHG emissions. This study aims to implement a green logistics concept in the logistics distribution of petroleum products—gasoline, kerosene, and diesel—in eastern Indonesia, whose supply sources are refineries located in Balikpapan and Kasim. A multi-objective approach is used to implement the green logistics concept. Multi-objective optimization is conducted using the AIMMS software to optimize a logistics system consisting of a multi-depot, multi-product, and heterogeneous fleet. The optimization is performed to determine the best logistics route and the amount of products delivered using certain types of fleets to minimize transportation cost and GHG emissions using constant speed. In addition, this study also investigates the effect of variable speed on cost and CO2 emissions. For the constant speed case, the distribution routes obtained for the minimizing cost scenario tends to maximize the utilization of transit terminals while in the minimizing emissions scenario tends to deliver directly to the distribution centers, so the route decision in multi-objective optimization scenario is combination of the two. The multi-objective optimization results an 11% cost reduction and a 17% GHG emission reduction compared with the current values. The comparison between constant and variable speed reveals that the variable speed is preferred to constant speed as it gives lower emissions with slight changes in cost.

Energy transition in petroleum rich nations: Case study of Iran

Energy modeling and planning problems associated with technical, economic, political, and social development have been critical concerns in energy system planning and greenhouse gas emission control for both national and worldwide for many years. This paper modeled and analyzed the current and future energy supply and demand for an oil-rich energy system because energy intensity is very high in such countries. A high shared fossil fuels energy system is modeled, and an appropriate energy mix is proposed to meet the national commitment in Paris Agreement.The EnergyPLAN is used to model the energy system. Hourly actual energy demand and supply are provided for 2004–2016 for all energy sectors and subsectors and anticipated 2030. Five different scenarios are analyzed, and results show that the power sector is more influential than other energy demand sectors. Efficiency improvement of the thermal power plans and the integration of renewable energy resources into the power sector are more useful for reducing Total Primary Energy Consumption, CO2, and variable cost than other scenarios. In the proper scenario, a 1% improvement in the thermal power plants efficiency and 22% annual average growth rate in renewable energy capacity, 4% CO2 reduction can be achieved.It is concluded that in oil-rich counties such as Iran, the energy system efficiency improvement, particularly in electricity production, is more useful for the overall CO2 reduction goals. Efforts for total CO2 reduction benefit the national energy system economy, and the international community will benefit from a more efficient energy system. We believe that by total primary energy supply reduction in oil-rich countries, the international market's energy supply will be increased, which further reduces the pressure on the global oil and gas prices.

Nature development in degraded landscapes: How pioneer bioturbators and water level control soil subsidence, nutrient chemistry and greenhouse gas emission

The restoration of degraded ecosystems and landscapes is challenging, because returning to the original state is often socio-economically unfeasible. A novel approach is to construct new ecosystems to improve the functioning of degraded landscapes. However, the development of novel ecosystems is largely driven by the pre-construction hydrogeophysical and ecological conditions of the soil. In Lake Markermeer, a deteriorating freshwater lake in the Netherlands, a large archipelago is currently being constructed to boost the ecological functioning of the lake. Hence, islands – with wetlands and with more elevated and dryer areas – have been created to sustain biodiversity and key biogeochemical functions such as nutrient cycling. The islands are constructed from lake-bottom sediments. To study how two potentially important drivers, water level and bioturbation, affect soil characteristics in a novel wetland ecosystem, we experimentally tested the effects of water level (-30, -10 and 5 cm), and bioturbation by earthworms (Lumbricus rubellus) and Tubifex spp. in a microcosm experiment. We demonstrate that a high water level prevents soil subsidence, soil crack formation and carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions, and affects nitrogen cycling. In dryer soils, the presence of earthworms strongly increases CO2 emissions next to reducing soil crack formation, while Tubifex spp. in wetter soils hardly affect soil characteristics. Our findings highlight the important roles of both water level and bioturbation for the functioning of novel soils, which likely affects vegetation development in novel ecosystems. This knowledge can be used to aid the construction and nature development of novel wetlands.

Emergy evaluation of the integrated gasification combined cycle power generation systems with a carbon capture system

An Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle (IGCC) power generation system has a significant effect on improving resource utilization efficiency. Carbon capture and storage (CCS) has been widely adopted to control greenhouse gas emissions. The integration of the two systems can further reduce CO2 emissions but cause elevated investment costs. As an effective tool to evaluate resource utilization efficiency and environmental impact, emergy analysis on coal and biomass based IGCC power generation systems with/without CCS is conducted in this paper. The coal based IGCC systems are simulated in Aspen plus to obtain the electricity generated under different CCS scales. For other systems, the data for emergy evaluation are from references. The sustainabilities under different CO2 tax values are compared. The factors impacting the sustainabilities are discussed. The results show that when CCS is not considered, all IGCC systems are superior to coal and biomass direct-fired systems in terms of sustainability. After CCS is integrated, the sustainability of biomass based IGCC system is still higher than that of biomass direct-fired systems, while coal based IGCC systems are less sustainable than coal direct-fired systems under low CO2 tax. The sustainabilities of Texaco-IGCC systems increase with CCS scales when CO2 tax is higher than 0.0220 $/kg, emphasizing CCS at a larger scale. For the Shell-IGCC systems, a higher CO2 tax (0.3880 $/kg) is preferred for the promotion of large scale CCS. In the scenario that the cost emergy transformity improves, the CO2 tax value at the point of sustainabilities reversal will decrease.

Innovative Practices to Maximize Resource Recovery and Minimize Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Landfill Waste Cells: Historical and Recent Developments

Over the last few decades, landfill design and operational practices have evolved. Current landfill waste cells include innovative features that eliminate most of the negative environmental impacts associated with waste disposal on land. This review focuses on some of the historical and recent advances in waste cell design and operational practices that minimize greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions associated with landfills that accept biodegradable organic waste and maximize energy and resource recovery from waste cells. Here, we emphasize innovative practices such as the operation of a waste cell as a landfill bioreactor with leachate recirculation to maximize landfill gas production and increase the rate of waste stabilization, controlling GHG emissions during filling of the waste cell, and mining of waste cells to recover recyclables and reuse waste residue for energy recovery and other beneficial uses.

Fuel consumption analysis and cap and trade system evaluation for Canadian in situ oil sands extraction

A better understanding of fuel use and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions resulting from Canadian oil sands (bitumen) extraction can help to meet the global carbon budget and design effective climate policies. To date, no studies have published actual fuel use data, analyzed drivers for the decline of emission intensities (EIs) from in situ oil sands extraction, and evaluated the effectiveness of the cap and trade system in Alberta that aims to control GHG emissions for the world's fourth largest oil production region. This study retrieved operating fuel use data from a public database for 18 in situ oil sands extraction schemes. From 2015 to 2019, the weighted average of fuel use was 0.23 103 m3/m3 undiluted bitumen. The weighted averages of fuel use for the schemes using Steam Assisted Gravity Drainage (SAGD) and Cyclic Steam Stimulation (CSS) were 0.20 103 m3 fuel/m3 of undiluted bitumen and 0.34 103 m3 fuel/m3 of undiluted bitumen, respectively. The average EIs for SAGD ranged from 0.25 metric ton (t) CO2e/m3 to 0.98 t CO2e/m3, and the average EIs for CSS ranged from 0.61 t CO2e/m3 to 1.18 t CO2e/m3. In addition, the study pointed out that production ramping up and maturity of reservoirs contributed to the decline in EIs. The study concluded that the current Alberta cap and trade system is not effective to control GHG emissions from in situ oil sands extraction. Some operations were rewarded for emission credits because of production increases, rather than actual emission reductions. An industry-wide benchmark (cap) should be considered to encourage competition. An absolute emission cap should be imposed to prevent facilities from simply increasing production to drive down EI values.