Greedy Perimeter Stateless Routing Research Articles

Self Adaptive Trust Model for Secure Geographic Routing in Wireless Sensor Networks

The presence of malicious nodes in the ad hoc and sensor networks poses serious security attacks during routing which affects the network performance. To address such attacks, numerous researchers have proposed defense techniques using a human behavior pattern called trust. Among existing solutions, direct observations based trust models have gained significant attention in the research community. In this paper, the authors propose a Self Adaptive Trust Model (SATM) of secure geographic routing in wireless sensor networks (WSNs). Unlike conventional weight based trust models, SATM intelligently assigns the weights associated with the network activities. These weights are applied to compute the final trust value. SATM considers direct observations to restrict the reputation based attacks. Due to the flexible and intelligent weight computation, SATM dynamically detects the malicious nodes and direct the traffic towards trustworthy nodes. SATM has been incorporated into Greedy Perimeter Stateless Routing (GPSR) protocol. Simulation results using the network simulator NS-2 have shown that GPSR with SATM is robust against detecting malicious nodes.

Modeling the Seismic Impacts on Communication Networks in Smart Grid

In Smart Grids, the real-time information measured by distributed sensors is transmitted through communication networks to create an automated energy delivery network. The communication reliability of communication networks in Smart Grids is of great importance, especially under the impact of natural disasters, which are the most common threats to the reliability of power grids. In this paper, the seismic impacts on communication networks in Smart Grids are analyzed, including the modeling of earthquakes, the fragility probability computing of power grids, and the seismic impacts on power line communication (PLC) channel. Based on these analyses, the network capacity is analyzed and the postearthquake network capacity is obtained through the formulations based on an arbitrary network model. The achievable data rates of a practical network are obtained through simulations on a simulated random topology according to practical parameters. To enhance the communication robustness of Smart Grids against earthquakes, a robust routing protocol based on greedy perimeter stateless routing (R-GPSR) is proposed. The simulation results show significant improvements in the reliability and expectation channel capacity of the communication network under the impacts of earthquakes with different magnitudes.

OPRM: an efficient hybrid routing protocol for sparse VANETs

Vehicular ad hoc network (VANET) is a subclass of mobile ad hoc network (MANET) that has emerged as an area of research for deployment of safety and infotainment applications. In VANETs, routing the packets for the above-mentioned applications is complex as the vehicle mobility is rapid and leads to dynamic network topology. In sparse VANET, route maintenance is still more complex since the number of vehicles is less. To repair the route in a sparse VANET, road side units (RSUs) are used to replace the vehicles. In this paper, a new on-demand routing protocol with proactive route maintenance (OPRM) using RSUs has been proposed for sparse VANETs. This protocol also proposes a power optimisation mechanism for the deployed RSUs. The proposed protocol along with the power optimisation mechanism has shown substantial improvements over the ad hoc on demand routing (AODV) and greedy perimeter stateless routing (GPSR) protocols.

Approximating geographic routing using coverage tree heuristics for wireless network

Geographic routing scheme (such as Greedy perimeter stateless routing) makes use of location information to forward packets greedily. Nodes need to keep only this location information in stateless routing. When the greedy forwarding fails, routing switches to perimeter forwarding based on either planar graph (GG and RNG) or cross link detection protocol approaches. However, it has drawback in terms of cost and computational overheads. We propose a coverage-tree heuristic based routing instead of face routing in geographic routing schemes when greedy forwarding fails. We prove that the coverage tree based routing problem is NP hard by reduction using minimum rooted spanning tree of depth 2 (RST 2). We also show that coverage-tree based geographic routing problem is APX hard and not approximable with a factor of $$1/2(1-\in ) \ln n$$1/2(1-?)lnn for any fixed $$\in > 0$$?>0 unless $$NP\subseteq DTIME(n^{\log \log n})$$NP⊆DTIME(nloglogn). Our proposed scheme of coverage-tree heuristics based geographic routing is $$(1+\ln m)$$(1+lnm)-approximation algorithm, a polynomial time algorithm using minimum distance topology knowledge. On performance comparison using simulation, our proposed scheme outperforms with the competitive schemes in term of success rate, network overhead and success rate against varying node density.

A self-organized backpressure routing scheme for dynamic small cell deployments

The increase of demand for mobile data services requires a massive network densification. A cost-effective solution to this problem is to reduce cell size by deploying a low-cost all-wireless Network of Small Cells (NoS). These hyper-dense deployments create a wireless mesh backhaul among Small Cells (SCs) to transport control and data plane traffic. The semi-planned nature of SCs can often lead to dynamic wireless mesh backhaul topologies.This paper presents a self-organized backpressure routing scheme for dynamic SC deployments (BS) that combines queue backlog and geographic information to route traffic in dynamic NoS deployments. BS aims at relieving network congestion, while having a low routing stretch (i.e., the ratio of the hop count of the selected paths to that of the shortest path). Evaluation results show that, under uncongested conditions, BS shows similar performance to that of an Idealized Shortest PAth routing protocol (ISPA), while outperforming Greedy Perimeter Stateless Routing (GPSR), a state of the art geographic routing scheme. Under more severe traffic conditions, BS outperforms both GPSR and ISPA in terms of average latency by up to a 85% and 70%, respectively. We conducted ns-3 simulations in a wide range of sparse NoS deployments and workloads to support these performance claims.

An Improved Trusted Greedy Perimeter Stateless Routing for Wireless Sensor Networks

In this paper, an improvement over Trusted Greedy Perimeter Stateless Routing (T-GPSR) is presented. T-GPSR employs heuristic weight values to evaluate total trust value of neighboring nodes. However, heuristic assignment of weights provide flexibility but it is not suitable in presence of several security attacks such as Grey hole, selfish behavior, on-off attack etc., are launched in the network in different proportions. To overcome this limitation, an improvement is suggested with an emphasis on trust update, lightweight trust computation and storage to reduce communication and storage overhead. The simulation study indicates that the packet delivery ratio of the improved T-GPSR has improved by 10% over T-GPSR in the presence of 50% of malicious nodes in the network.

Dynamic packet beaconing for GPSR mobile ad hoc position-based routing protocol using fuzzy logic

Greedy perimeter stateless routing (GPSR) is a well-known position-based routing protocol in mobile ad hoc network (MANET). In GPSR, nodes use periodic beaconing (PB) strategy in broadcasting beacon packets to maintain up-to-date information on the geographical position of their neighbor nodes within their transmission boundary range. The nodes that receive beacon packets save all known neighbor nodes, along with their geographical position information, in their neighbor list to make effective routing decisions. Most recent studies on position-based routing protocols assume that the position information in the neighbor list of a node is accurate, although only a rough estimate of such position information is actually available to the node. Node mobility causes frequent network topology changes in MANETs. Thus, neighbor-to-neighbor relationships change frequently. Using the PB strategy leads to inaccurate node position information in the neighbor list of a node. In addition, it may cause the routing protocol to make suboptimal decisions and not route packets through the best-located neighbor within the transmission range of the node. This study presents an analysis of the influence of position information inaccuracy caused by network parameters such as beacon packet interval time (BPIT) and node moving speed (NMS) on the performance of GPSR position-based routing protocols. To overcome the effect of position information inaccuracy in the neighbor list of a node, we proposed a fuzzy logic dynamic beaconing (FLDB) strategy to improve the reliability of the neighbor list of a node by optimizing time between transmissions of beacon packets in position-based routing protocols. Optimization is based on the correlation between NMS, number of neighboring nodes (NoNNs) and BPIT using fuzzy logic control (FLC) mechanism. The simulation experiment shows the effectiveness of the FLC mechanism in improving overall performance of GPSR position-based routing protocol in terms of beacon packet control overhead, end-to-end delay, non-optimal hop, and false node position.

A traffic flow-oriented routing protocol for VANETs

AbstractThis paper presents a novel position-based routing protocol for vehicular ad hoc networks (VANETs) to enhance traffic safety and traffic organization and facilitate driving through a smart transportation system. The protocol is referred to as the traffic flow-oriented routing (TFOR) protocol for VANETs. It considers a real-time urban scenario with multi-lane and bi-directional roads. It chooses junction optimally considering vehicular traffic flows to accomplish robust routing paths and thereby forwarding the data packets. The new junction selection mechanism and routing between the junctions is based on two-hop neighbor information, which increases packet-delivery ratio and decreases end-to-end delay. We designed, implemented, and compared TFOR against existing routing protocols of VANETs (greedy-perimeter stateless routing (GPSR), geographic source routing (GSR), and enhanced greedy traffic-aware routing (E-GyTAR)). Simulation outcomes in urban scenarios show that TFOR minimizes average end-to-end delay and routing overhead by on average 15.3% and 19.5%, respectively, compared to GPSR. It reduces routing overhead up to 17% compared to GSR. TFOR maximizes packet-delivery ratio on an average of 17.5%, 10.7%, and 7.2% compared to GPSR, GSR, and E-GyTAR, respectively.

Geographic-based Routing in Smart Grid’s Neighbor Area Networks

Neighbor area network (NAN), also known as smart meter communication network, is one of the most important segments of smart grid communications network (SGCN). This paper studies the performance of greedy perimeter stateless routing (GPSR), a representative implementation of geographic-based routing class, in the NAN scenario and investigates the feasibility of this routing protocol in supporting SG applications. Specifically, packet transmission delay and reliability of GPSR in an IEEE 802.15.4-based wireless mesh NAN with practical system parameters are measured by simulations. The results show that, at the data rate required for conventional SG applications including smart metering, real-time pricing and demand response, the delay can always be maintained below 70 ms (in 95th-percentile perspective) while packet delivery ratio is higher than 90%. However, due to that fact that more advanced applications that require information exchange at higher rates and more stringent delays are emerging in SG, the performance of GPSR in NAN scenarios using radio technologies that can support higher loads and/or larger network scales needs to be studied.

English

In geographic routing, nodes to theirinstantaneous neighbors call for to maintain up-to-date positions for making successfulforwarding decisions. The geographic location coordinates of the nodes by the periodic broadcasting of beacon packetsis atrendy method used by the majority geographic routing protocols to preserve neighbor positions. We contend and display that periodicbeaconing apart from of the node mobility and traffic patterns in the network is not nice-looking from both update cost and routingrecital points of view. We recommend the Adaptive Position Update (APU) strategy for geographic routing, which enthusiasticallyadjusts the occurrence of position updates based on the mobility dynamics of the nodes and the forwarding patterns in the system. APUis based on two easy principles: 1) nodes whose arrangements are harder to guess update their positions more recurrently (and viceversa), and (ii) nodes faster to forwarding paths update their positions more recurrently (and vice versa). Our speculative analysis, whichis validated by NS2 simulations of a well-known geographic routing procedure, Greedy Perimeter Stateless Routing Protocol (GPSR),shows that APU can drastically reduce the update cost and pick up the routing performance in terms of packet delivery ratio andregular end-to-end delay in assessment with periodic beaconing and other recently proposed updating schemes. The benefits of APUare additional confirmed by responsibility evaluations in realistic network scenarios, which account for localization error, practical radiopropagation, and sparse system.

MLRT: AN MYSTERIOUS LOCATION BASED EFFICIENT ROUTING PROTOCOL IN MANETS

Mysterious Location-based Efficient Routing Protocol (MLRT) is an anonymous routing protocol its play a vital role in Mobile Ad hoc Networks (MANETs). MLRT provide a secure communication by hiding the node identities and preventing the traffic analysis attacks from outside observers in order to provide a mysterious protection. It dynamically partition the network into subzones till the sender and receiver are in different zones and the nodes in the zones are connected as intermediate relay nodes. It uses random relay node selection is difficult for intruder detection and dynamically generating an unpredictable routing path for a message. It maintains a time limit for message transmission due to security and control the time delay. MLRT offers mysterious protection to sources, destinations and routes. It achieves better route anonymity protection and lower cost compared to other anonymous routing protocols. It has a strategy to effectively solve the intersection attacks and avoid timing attacks because of its non-fixed routing paths for a source and destination pair. Also MLRT mainly works on Greedy Perimeter Stateless Routing (GPSR) algorithm.

Signal power random fading based interference-aware routing for wireless sensor networks

Power loss and interference coexist in wireless transmissions where random uncertainty is aggravated due to the mobility of sensor nodes. A probability interference model was proposed, based on the physical model and random fading of the received signal power, to depict the uncertainty of wireless interference. In addition, an interference-aware routing metric was designed, in which interference, routing convergence and residual energies of nodes were integrated. Furthermore, an interference-aware probabilistic routing algorithm was proposed for mobile wireless sensor networks, and its correctness and time and space complexities were proved. The NS-2 simulation experiments showed that the proposed algorithm can achieve higher packet delivery ratio than Greedy Perimeter Stateless Routing in various cases like the pause time and maximum moving speed. Simultaneously, the energy consumption of a packet and average delay were taken into consideration to better meet the needs of mobile scenarios with higher reliability.

A Multimetric, Map-Aware Routing Protocol for VANETs in Urban Areas

In recent years, the general interest in routing for vehicular ad hoc networks (VANETs) has increased notably. Many proposals have been presented to improve the behavior of the routing decisions in these very changeable networks. In this paper, we propose a new routing protocol for VANETs that uses four different metrics. which are the distance to destination, the vehicles' density, the vehicles' trajectory and the available bandwidth, making use of the information retrieved by the sensors of the vehicle, in order to make forwarding decisions, minimizing packet losses and packet delay. Through simulation, we compare our proposal to other protocols, such as AODV (Ad hoc On-Demand Distance Vector), GPSR (Greedy Perimeter Stateless Routing), I-GPSR (Improvement GPSR) and to our previous proposal, GBSR-B (Greedy Buffer Stateless Routing Building-aware). Besides, we present a performance evaluation of the individual importance of each metric to make forwarding decisions. Experimental results show that our proposed forwarding decision outperforms existing solutions in terms of packet delivery.

PARS: Position based Anonymous Routing Scheme in MANETs

Mobile Ad hoc Networks (MANET) comprises of self-organizing autonomous mobile nodes. MANETs are open and decentralized. Therefore they are vulnerable to malicious entities. MANETs are multi-hop wireless network where all nodes supportively maintain network connectivity without a centralized infrastructure. Since MANETs are infrastructure less and independent, the secure communication is the main issue. Therefore they are vulnerable to malicious entities. Here the location identity and traffic can be traced out by an outside observer. Anonymity means secure communications by hiding node identities and preventing traffic analysis attacks by outside observers. This paper proposes Position based Anonymous Routing Scheme in MANETs (PARS).Here the routing is based on Greedy Perimeter Stateless Routing Protocol. The objective is an anonymous routing protocol for the network. The proposed one is a zone based anonymous GPSR based protocol that can provide source, destination and route anonymity. Performance of the proposed system is compared with that of GPSR and AODV using Network Simulator. Index Terms: Anonymous routing, position-based routing, random forwarder, zone partition. I. Introduction Mobile Ad hoc Networks are collection of independent mobile nodes that can communicate by radio waves. It is an infrastructure less self-organizing network. The nodes that are in radio range can communicate by single hop or by multi hop with the help of intermediate nodes. The network is open and decentralized and fully distributed. So they are perfect choice for communication and information sharing. MANETs are susceptible to malicious entities that aim to alter and analyzed the traffic analysis by communication eaves dropping or attacking routing protocols. MANETs are characterized by their distributed operation, multi hop routing, dynamic topology and shared physical medium. Nodes in a MANET are independently free to move in any direction. Due to the lack of a centralized coordinator security is the major concern here. Wireless communication can endure interferences or malicious interceptions; whereas multi-hop communication assumes that each node will perform properly its functions to support network services. Further, self-organization increases the complexity of security management operations as access control, node authentication, secure routing and cryptographic key distribution. There is no fixed infrastructure and the topology is frequently changing due to node mobility or environmental changes. Therefore, it is very hard to maintain a stable and efficient end-to-end route in an ad-hoc network. Each node in MANET is energy constrained. There is verylimited physical security in MANET. The type of attacks can be Active attacks or Passive attacks. The common security issues are Passive attacks which include eaves dropping and information disclosure. Active attacks include Do Sand Data modification. There are other more specific problems with mobile ad hoc network such as vulnerability of channels and nodes, Byzantine black hole and Byzantine wormhole attack. The security issue also includes attacks that may inject erroneous routing information and diverting network traffic thus making routing inefficient. There are many methods to reduce the impact of these attacks, which include a secure routing using public and private key s to get a certification authority and use of digital signatures and prior it rust relationships. Routing is the process of communication from one node to the other host in a network. Routing is the process off or warding packet towards its destination using most efficient path. Routing efficiency is measured in terms of Number of hops, traffic, security, etc. Routing protocols in MANETs are divided as reactive proactive and hybrid. Reactive Protocol maintains the routes in on demand manner. In route discovery phase it floods the route request (RREQ) packets throughout the network. Dynamic source Routing (DSR), ad hoc on- demand distance vector routing (AODV) are some of the examples of reactive protocols. In proactive approach every node in the MANET continuously maintains the complete routing information of the entire network. This is accomplished by flooding network periodically with network status information. Global State Routing (GSR), Hierarchical State Routing (HSR) and Destination Sequenced Distance Vector Routing (DSDV) are some of the examples of proactive

Geographic routing algorithm based on anchor nodes in vehicular network

Vehicular network has the following characteristics such as nodes moving fast,topology changing rapidly. The direct use of Global Positioning System(GPS) devices causes large positioning error and low routing connectivity rate.Therefore,the packet delivery rate of the existing location-based routing algorithm is not high enough to provide reliable routing. A geographic routing algorithm based on anchor node in vehicle networks named Geographic Routing based on Anchor Nodes(GRAN) was proposed. Using street lamps as anchor nodes,a vehicle could locate itself through the anchor nodes.Combined with the road gateway and the central data,GRAN established a hierarchical routing structure,thus removing the steps of route discovery and the whole network broadcast. Thus,the routing overhead was reduced and the routing efficiency and the packet delivery rate were improved. By using the NS-2 software and selecting a realistic urban scene,a simulation was conducted on Greedy Perimeter Stateless Routing(GPSR),Graphic Source Routing(GSR) and GRAN. The experimental results show that GRAN can provide a lower average delay,higher packet delivery ratio and throughput at a lower load,compared with several typical location-based routing protocols.

A CROSS-LAYERED PATH STABILITY BASED ROUTING PROTOCOL FOR WiMAX NETWORKS

In IEEE 802.16, a Subscriber Station (SS) is batter y powered with limited capacity. A SS can be made to operate for longer durations by deploying power sav ing features or by using relay stations. Multi-hop communication conserves power, but finding an optimal path to the destination is monotonous. Path stability indicates how stable a path is and how lo ng it can support communication. Identifying stable paths helps in reducing the control traffic, number of co nnection disruptions and also in conserving power. In this study, Greedy Perimeter Stateless Routing (GPSR) and Link-St Ability and Energy aware Routing (LAER) designed for Mobile Ad hoc NET works (MANETs) are implemented for WiMAX networks and their performance is evaluated. Further, a novel Cross-la yered Path Stability based Routing protocol (CPSR) is proposed to find a stable path based on Residual En ergy (RE), Received Signal Strength Indicator (RSSI) and Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR). The total energy consumed is minimized, thus maximizing the network lifetime.

A Route-Aware Delay Tolerant Routing Protocol for Sparse Vehicular Ad-Hoc Networks

In vehicular ad-hoc networks (VANETs), vehicles move highly and non-randomly along roads while exchanging information with other vehicles. Rapid movement of vehicles and frequent topology changes cause repeated link breakages, increasing the packet loss rate. Because of these characteristics, routing protocols based on greedy forwarding such as greedy perimeter stateless routing (GPSR) are known to be very suitable for VANETs. Greedy forwarding based routing protocols select the vehicle nearest to the destination as a relay vehicle within the transmission range of the sender vehicle. Therefore, it is challenging for selecting the next relay vehicle in a low density of vehicles. To this end, we propose a routeaware delay tolerant routing (RADTR) protocol by combing greedy forwarding and storecarry-forwarding for spare VANETs such as the early morning hours. RADTR uses map data to generate a scheduled route and to predict the moving position during the relay node selection process. And each vehicle is assumed to be aware of its route to its destination and a route is specified by a sequence of its scheduled roads. Simulation results using ns-2 revealed that RADTR performs much better than the existing routing protocols in sparse VANETs.

Effective Geographical Routing in the Presence of Unpredictable Node Mobility

The geographical routing protocol employs position information from the localization system for multi-hop data communication. However, the location inaccuracy due to the unpredictable node mobility and the power consumption of localization system reduces the performance of geographical routing protocol. Several geographical routing protocols have been proposed in Mobile Ad Hoc Network (MANET). The well-known geographical routing among them is Greedy Perimeter Stateless Routing (GPSR). In GPSR, the dead end node selection for data communication easily handles the network scalability. However, the highly dynamic network topology makes frequent changes in the neighbor’s location. Hence, the inaccurate location information degrades GPSR performance. This paper proposed a Modified GPSR (MGPSR) protocol to improve the performance under a large scale and a high mobility network. Moreover, the MGPSR consists of Neighbor List Learning (NNL), Node Mobility Prediction (NMP), and Periodic Position Update (PPU) schemes to balance the data delay and packet delivery ratio. The NNL along with NMP scheme provides the accurate neighbor list under a high mobility network. Furthermore, the PPU supports the guarantee for accurate neighbor location. In addition, the proposed schemes reduce the usage of localization systems to provide accurate location information with low power consumption which improve the routing performance in MGPSR. This work simulates and compares the performance of an enhanced MGPSR in the aspects of packet delivery ratio and throughput with the existing GPSR. Thus, it proves the MGPSR outperforms the GPSR under a large scale with a high mobility network.

HyBR: A Hybrid Bio-inspired Bee swarm Routing protocol for safety applications in Vehicular Ad hoc NETworks (VANETs)

Increasing interests in Vehicular Ad hoc NETworks (VANETs) over the last decade have led to huge investments in technologies and research to improve road safety by providing timely and accurate information to drivers and authorities. To achieve the timely dissemination of messages, various routing protocols for VANETs have been recently proposed. We present a Hybrid Bee swarm Routing (HyBR) protocol for VANETs. HyBR is based on the continuous learning paradigm in order to take into account the dynamic environmental changes in real-time which constitute a key property of VANETs. The protocol combines the features of topology routing with those of geographic routing. HyBR is a unicast and a multipath routing protocol (aimed at both urban and rural scenarios) which guarantees road safety services by transmitting packets with minimum delays and high packet delivery. To demonstrate the effectiveness and the performance of HyBR, we conducted a performance evaluation based on several metrics such as end-to-end delay, packet delivery ratio, and normalized overhead load. We obtained better performance results with HyBR in contrast to results obtained from traditional routing algorithms such as Ad hoc On-Demand Distance Vector (AODV) topology-based routing protocol and Greedy Perimeter Stateless Routing (GPSR) geography-based protocol.

Adaptive Position Update for Geographic Routing in Mobile Ad Hoc Networks

In geographic routing, nodes need to maintain up-to-date positions of their immediate neighbors for making effective forwarding decisions. Periodic broadcasting of beacon packets that contain the geographic location coordinates of the nodes is a popular method used by most geographic routing protocols to maintain neighbor positions. We contend and demonstrate that periodic beaconing regardless of the node mobility and traffic patterns in the network is not attractive from both update cost and routing performance points of view. We propose the Adaptive Position Update (APU) strategy for geographic routing, which dynamically adjusts the frequency of position updates based on the mobility dynamics of the nodes and the forwarding patterns in the network. APU is based on two simple principles: 1) nodes whose movements are harder to predict update their positions more frequently (and vice versa), and (ii) nodes closer to forwarding paths update their positions more frequently (and vice versa). Our theoretical analysis, which is validated by NS2 simulations of a well-known geographic routing protocol, Greedy Perimeter Stateless Routing Protocol (GPSR), shows that APU can significantly reduce the update cost and improve the routing performance in terms of packet delivery ratio and average end-to-end delay in comparison with periodic beaconing and other recently proposed updating schemes. The benefits of APU are further confirmed by undertaking evaluations in realistic network scenarios, which account for localization error, realistic radio propagation, and sparse network.