Great King Research Articles

加耶轉換期 金海 狗耶·金官國의 推移

In this paper, through ancient tombs excavated in Gimhae, the centre of Gaya, a cataclysmic aspect of society and population at a turning point from the Former Gaya to the Later Gaya was studied, and this also revealed the aspect of society of the Former Gaya to academia that had scant awareness. First, the meaning of a turning point of Gaya was defined. About half century from the attack southern part of the Great King Guanggaeto in 400 A.D to the construction of the South Tomb of HuangNam Great Tombs in 458 A.D was separated into three periods, and there were two bifurcations, the dissolution of the Former Gaya and the establishment of the Later Gaya. It is also a process that hegemony of Yeongnan area was passed from the Former Gaya on to Silla. For research, the wooden chamber tomb and the stone lined tomb which were the main tombs of Gimhae area were reexamined. The system problem and the main-additional chamber tomb problem were also indicated. Especially, the stone lined tomb were separated into two systems: a wide tomb with wooden covers and a narrow tomb with stone covers. They were developed from a wooden chamber tomb and a former stone coffin tomb each. About the elite tomb of Gaya, a wooden chamber tomb of Daesungdong was main in the Former Gaya, and the two different stone lined tombs were combined in Bokcheondong site, and it became the main elite tomb of the Later Gaya. This intended change happened at a turning point from the Former Gaya to the Later Gaya. Finally, the aspect of tomb construction of Gimhae area was also studied. At the second bifurcation from the Former Gaya to the Later Gaya, tombs of “the inner gulf of Gimhae” were rapidly decreasing. It is connected with a decline in population. The boundaries of a tomb spread to the suburbs, and the Nakdong river area was be fully used than before. It is connected with the collapse of the centre elite group of the Former Gaya.

The Moral Doctrine of Manuneethi Chola in Sekkizhar's Periyapuranam

Manuneeti Chola's past history is that a king should rule without any sense of self-interest by treating all beings equally without fail in justice. The rule of Manuneeti Chola is a great example of the democratic, communist, and other modes of governance of many countries of the world, both in the present and in the future. Purity of mind comes from penance. The purity of action comes from action. Good deeds come from virtue. Punishment for a mistake done unknowingly is the justice that the power of God implies. Morality is the true worship of God. This article contains an account of the events of the great king Manuneeti Chola who lived his life without missing morality. Sekkizhar's Periyapuranam, written in the 12th century, describes the art, etiquette, culture, discipline, and way of life of the Tamils. The purpose of this article is to explain the divine virtues of Manuneeti Chola. In this article, the book Periyapuranam, the author of the book, and the moral doctrine of Manu Neethi Chola, who originated in the Tamil Chola tradition, which is the epitome of world justice, are analyzed.

한말∼1910년대 문학을 통한 오리슨 스웨트 마든의 성공주의 수용

This study examines the acceptance of Orison Sweat Marden’s theory of success through literature such as business novels, ambition novels, and biography of businessmen in the late of Great Han Empire and 1910s. Marden is famous for being a follower of Samuel Smiles’ self-help. The content of Marden’s theory of success is to make achievements that is based on the spirit of self-help in the business world. Around the 1900s, literary genres such as business novels, ambition novels, and biography of businessmen were initiated or established in the magazines of 『Business of Japan』 and 『Success』. business novels, ambition novels, and biography of businessmen were used as a means of disseminating business success, In Japan in the 1900s. In short, This study paid attention to the translation or publication of the business novels 『Songroegum』 and 『Burangeukrimjeon』, ambition novels 『Gwisang’s Dream』 and 『300 million won』, a biography of a businessman 『The Great King of Steel』 in the late of Great Han Empire and 1910s. Thus, it was revealed that Marden’s theory of success was accepted for the first time in Korea through such literature.

The Boundless Friendship between Velpari and Kapilar in Classical Literature

This article sets out to know the opinions of poets, scholars, and sages in classical literature such as Ettuththokai (Eight Anthologies), Pathuppattu (The Ten Idylls), Pathinenkilkanakku (18 books), Didactic books, and Moral literature. And also, to explore the power of unadulterated honesty, truth, and dignity in friendship. Moreover, Kapilar was a great poet who was the chief scholar of the Tamil Sangam in education, questions, and in Madurai, the city where Tamil was developed with the various periods of Sangam as First Sangam, Middle (Idai) Sangam, and Last (Kadai) Sangam. Most of the songs in Sangam literature are sung by Kapilar.It has been thoroughly researched about the excellence of the friendship between the poet Kapilar and Velpari, the leader of the Velirkulam who ruled the small land of Parambu Nadu within the boundaries of the Pandya Empire, the grammar of friendship, the necessity of friendship, and friendship, as well as the unethical friendship that has been dealt with in Purananuru, Patirupattu, Siruppanaartuppai, Thirukkural, and Naladiyar. In the classical literature, the way in which Velpari and Kapilar valued friendship more than life, and the high spirit of Kapilar who stood as a close supporter of Velpari and guided Pari to defeat the enemy and helped him to achieve victory in the time of great suffering, is also explored in this article. Knowing that Pari cannot be defeated in a face-to-face fight, Moovendars (Three Great Kings) kills Pari by stratagem. After Velpari's death, Kabila, who had intended to sacrifice himself, changed his mind, thinking that if he too died, both of Pari's daughters would be left in a state of destitution. Kapila intended to get Pari's daughters married and appealed to the chieftains, Ilavachiko and Irungo, to share the fame of Pari and marry his daughters. Fearing the enmity of the Moovendars, the two small land leaders refused to accept Kapilar's request. Kapilar, who was heartbroken and without Pari, wanted to die. Kapilar handed over Pari's daughters to a brahmin who was close to him and gave up his life from the north.

Samarian Sikke Tipi Üzerine Bir Not. Bir Kraliyet Atlısı mı?

Some new, unlisted types of Samarian coins have appeared recently on the antiquities market. In the present paper I would like to discuss some points concerning one of them, which is especially interesting because of its iconography. The coin appeared on the market in Autumn 2021. Its reverse shows an image of a cavalryman with a spear or a javelin. Unlike the other images of the Iranian cavalrymen depicted on Samarian coins, the exemplar probably shows "the Great King like figure" having long beard and wearing a kidaris. So far, such an image is not only unique in Samarian coinage, but finds only one analogy in the coinages of the Achaemenid period in general. The image of "the Great King like figure" on horseback is, on the one hand, an interesting extension of the iconographic repertoire of Samarian coins, and on the other hand, it complements my earlier findings concerning the images of the Iranian horseman on Samarian, but also broadly speaking, on satrapal coins.

The King’s Horsemen in the Battle of Cunaxa

Abstract The scholarly debate on the Achaemenid Empire’s cavalry pays only a little attention to the Great King’s horsemen in the Battle of Cunaxa, fought in 401 BC between the forces of Artaxerxes II (404-359 BC) and his younger brother Cyrus. The same can be said of the discussion on the battle itself—Artaxerxes’ horsemen are mentioned rather cursorily. The aim of the present article is to provide a closer look into Artaxerxes’ cavalry in the Battle of Cunaxa, with particular attention paid to the horsemen commanded by Artagerses and by Tissaphernes.

Die Unterdrückung von Uruk: Einwände gegen die Deutung als „mythical history“

Abstract In this article the thesis is defended that the mythical tales about Gilgameš and other heroes of the past, are not concerned with telling or evaluating history, but that figures and perhaps events known from the tradition are only used in these tales. The term “mythical history”, used by Piotr Steinkeller is not adequate, if understood as a sort of philosophy of the past. Steinkeller’s example, the oppression of Uruk by Gilgameš, is investigated in detail. Steinkeller has chosen scenes from different stories of the Sumerian Gilgameš-Cycle neglecting their original context as if they were part of one story. Older translations of two Sumerian words and their Akkadian equivalences and the neglect of context are instrumental for Steinkeller’s interpretation of the oppression of Uruk. He proposes that a shift from divine kingship to secular kingship be taken for granted. But if we look at the evidence, a more divine rule before ca. 2900 BC seems neither impossible nor sure. But we know for sure that a religious legitimation of kingship remained in place. Later Sumerian and Akkadian kings were still the beloved ones of Inanna/ Ištar, received the scepter from Enlil and so on. It is very likely that the oppression of Uruk shows how a king should not behave towards his people and Gilgameš is required to learn this lesson in order to become a great king. A king you may wish for the present time too.

FROM ANATOLIAN WORD HATTİCE TABARNA TO İL-TEBER IN ANCIENT TURKIC PEOPLES

Anadolulu bir kelime olan Hattice t/labarna’nın Kayseri-Kültepe’den ele geçen tabletlerde, M.Ö. 1800’lü yıllardan itibaren özel isimlerde kullanıldığı görülmektedir. Daha sonra Eski Hitit Çağında krala Labarna/Tabarna ismi, krala isim verme (I. Labarna, I. Hattušili (=II. Labarna)) geleneği şeklinde devam etmiştir. labarna-/tabarna- Hitit krallarının unvanı olarak kral, hükümdar anlamında kullanılmıştır. Sumercede TAB kelimesinden (çift, ikili, çiftlemek, iki parçalı) türetildiğini düşündüğümüz t/labarna’nın ilk hecesinde çift, ikili anlamının bulunduğu aşikârdır. Tabarna/Labarna unvanı sadece "Hatti ülkesinin büyük kralı" için kullanılırdı ve Hitit krallığının kullandığı amblem, gücün de sembolü olan baltadır. KI.LAM (pazar yeri) bayramı töreni boyunca, krallığın simgesi olarak bazen demir balta ve demir mızrağın krallığın simgesi olarak kralla beraber geçtiği görülmektedir. Böylece balta ve mızrağın "krallığın simgelerini" ifade ettiği belirgin bir biçimde ortaya çıkmaktadır. Güney Avrupa, Ortadoğu ve Hindistan’a kadar uzanan bölgede iktidarların bilinen silahı ve sembolü olarak iki balta veya tek saplı çift balta karşımıza çıkmaktadır. Antik devirde labrys’un (çift ağızlı balta), dinsel törenlerde kullanıldığını ya da adak eşyası olarak tanrılara sunulduğunu görüyoruz. İslamiyet öncesinde eski Türk unvanları arasında, İl-teber (ilin teberi/ilin yöneticisi) unvanı kitabelerde Uygur ve Karluk reislerinin unvanı olarak yer almaktadır. Bütün bunlar Hattice t/labarna “hükümdarlık unvanı”nın, Hititlerden itibaren Eski Türklerde İl-teber’e kadar devam eden tarihsel yolculuğunu göstermesi açısından oldukça önemlidir.

Cerita Rakyat “Saliwu, Pahlawan Suku Padoe”

This study aims to research Luwu's oral literary work on the character of the story based on the Levi-Strauss analysis model. "Saliwu, Pahlawan Suku Padoe" is one of the literary works of the Luwu community which is full of values and concepts of life, delivered orally, and passed down from generation to generation to speakers. This story tells about a great king's who struggle with high self-esteem against the oppression of other ethnic group who wished to dominate and colonize their region. In addition, the story can be a source of advice and learning for posterity for the provision of the coming day so that it does not get lost. This story also intends to introduce a character who is described as a great hero and highly respected. He is willing to be held captive and die in exile rather than betraying his people who uphold custom. The theory used is Levi-Strauss with descriptive analysis method. The results found indicate that there is structured relationship between elements in the story and social conditions in the community.

TAX POLICY OF THE MONGOL EMPIRE (1206-1405)

Summary According to historical sources, property differences arose at a certain stage of human history, and taxes have been levied since the formation of class societies and states. Tax comes from the Greek word “Gift”, because, initially, citizens gave gifts to the government on a voluntary basis. As a result, the king believed that the citizens should pay taxes because he was serving the people, so the gift turned into a compulsory tribute, and taxes arose. For example, in the 12th-11th centuries BC, citizens began to pay taxes at the king’s expense. Today, taxes are defined as money that is collected from enterprises, organizations, and citizens, voluntarily or by force, and is transferred to the state budget. In the 10th and 18th centuries, when a state was formed in Mongolia, citizens began to pay tribute to the lords and authorities, and the foundation of taxation was laid. There is no one who can argue that taxes are the basis for the prosperity of the Mongolian state. That’s why it is said that “under the existence of the state there is the existence of taxes, and under the existence of taxes there is the existence of the state”. Researchers have considered the history of taxation in Mongolia in 5 stages. In this article, we have included a brief history of the development of taxes in Mongolia and the policies of the great kings of Mongolia regarding taxes.

Hunminjeongeum Phonetics (I): Phonetic and Phoniatric Consideration for Explanation of Designs of Middle Vowel Letters

Hunminjeongeum was made by the Great King Sejong, and composed of 17 consonant and 11 vowel letters. All the 28 letters were made according to the shape of vocal organ or space at the point of articulation for each letters. This review article focused on phonetic and phoniatric consideration for explanation of the designs of the middle vowel letters, especially three main vowel letters [ • (天, heaven), ㅡ (地, earth), ㅣ (人, human)] using video-fluoroscopic evaluation as well as computed tomography scanning, etc. During articulating / • / sound, a ball-like space at frontal portion of the oral cavity was found, tongue was contracted, and sound was deep (舌 縮而聲深). During /ㅡ/ sound, a flat air space between oral tongue and hard palate was created. Tongue was slightly contacted neither deep nor shallow (舌小縮而聲不深不淺). During /ㅣ/ sound, tongue was not contacted and Sound is light (舌不縮而聲淺). Tongue was moved forward making longitudinal oro-pharyngeal air space. So, I’d like to suggest that we had better change the explanation drawing from a philosophical modeling to a more scientific modeling from real vocal tract space modeling during articulating middle vowels of Hunminjeongeum.

Sultan Agung's Cultural Insights: Reflections of Javanese Insights

Sultan Agung is the greatest king in the Islamic Mataram Kingdom. He is not only talented in politics and economics, but also in the cultural arena. This article aims to examine the cultural insight of Sultan Agung in the Islamic Mataram Kingdom. That is how Sultan Agung's efforts in developing Javanese culture are closely related to Islamization in Java. This study uses a qualitative approach and historical methods. The results of the study show that Sultan Agung's cultural insight reflects the insight of the Javanese who are always willing to accept the entry of cultural elements from outside to enrich the culture they already have. With his insight, Sultan Agung was able to integrate Javanese culture with foreign culture. Among the cultural products developed by Sultan Agung are: creating legitimacy of genealogies connected to great figures, such as the Prophet Adam, the gods, the puppet king, to the king of Majapahit; create legitimacy of king titles, such as Penembahan Agung, Susuhunan, Sultan, and Khalifatullah Sayyidin Panatagama; establish a government position structure based on Islam through the Penghuluan Institution (Reh Pangulon); developing Javanese literature and language in the form of chronicles and Gendhing literature; developing the art of building, carving, painting, and music with a blend of Hindu and Islamic elements; revive the Sekaten Celebration which has developed since pre-Islamic times by updating its ceremonial equipment; and created the Javanese Islamic Calendar.

Role of Maharaja Naranarayana in the Consolidation of the Koch Kingdom: A Historical Study

The name of Maharaja Naranarayan is almost unknown to the people of Bengal or Assam, not only that there is no sign of the name of the Maharaja in the history of India; but once he was a remarkable King or Monarch who placed the Koch Kingdom on the fame and glorious position in the soil of North east India. He became the challenging figure in the larger areas of North east India defeating the contemporary rulers gradually one by one, namely Ahom Kingdom, Kachhar, Jayantiya, Manipur and Dimrua. Maharaja not only defeated his rivalry and consolidated his empire, but also he took a diplomatic policy like Samudragupta, the great Gupta King because in spite of wining the native states in the North east India he returned the concerned Kingdoms to the native rulers by getting annual tribute and yielding. But unfortunately the name of the great king including the history of the other rulers of the Koch Kingdom has not get any place in the history of India. Beside the expansion and consolidation of the Koch Kingdom he established peace and integrity maintaining the cultural assimilation and economic development in the Koch Kingdom. In the present article the achievement of this great Koch King will be highlighted.

Foreign Policy of Sultan Zain-Ul-Abidin

Zain-ul-Abidin, also known as Badshah (the great King), ruled Kashmir in the modern-day state of Jammu and Kashmir from 1420 to 1470. When his older brother Sultan Ali Shah embarked for a pilgrimage to Mecca, Shahi Khan, the son of Sultan Sikandar, was left in charge of the realm. However, Ali Shah's father-in-law, the king of Jammu, persuaded him to bring a portion of the Jammu army back to Kashmir from Thatta. After giving Ali Shah control of the country, Shahi Khan grew enraged and went to Jasrath, the Khokkar chief, and refused to leave. Ali Shah was unsuccessful in his mission against Jasrath. Ali Shah was reportedly killed at Chadura after being captured by Khokkars. Shahi Khan took the name Zain-ul-Abidin after he succeeded to the throne. Zain-ul-Abidin is referred to as the greatest of all rulers because of his outstanding rule and reputation (Badshah). The study's objective is to provide an explanation of din Zain-ul-Abidin's foreign strategy. The study has a descriptive and historical tone. The research is qualitative in nature, and to evaluate the qualitative data from secondary sources, it makes extensive use of the thematic software tool.

Kilka uwag na temat bitwy pod Kunaksą (401 r. przed Chr.)

The present article deals with the Battle of Cunaxa fought in 401 BC between the forces of the Achaemenid Great King Artaxerxes II (404-359) and his younger brother Cyrus. The battle is chiefly shown from the perspective of Greek soldiers, fighting on Cyrus’ side, and the majority of studies devoted to it is focused on them. The perspective is determined by sources we have, especially Anabasis of Xenophon, our primarily informer. The aim of the present article is to pay attention to the King’s forces in the Battle of Cunaxa, and to focus on some aspects of this engagement that have not been addressed or satisfactorily analyzed in the studies to date. Particular attention is given to the composition and armament of the King’s army. The results will allow us to see a fuller picture of the Battle of Cunaxa and comprehend it better.

On the Identity of Hartapu

AbstractThe recent discovery of the Hieroglyphic Luwian inscription of TÜRKMEN-KARAHÖYÜK 1 in the Konya Plain (Turkey) has sparked a debate regarding its author, Great King Hartapu, the dates of his rule, and his role in the political geography of south-central Anatolia. Several authors now propose that two kings of the same name may have reigned at different times in the same region. This paper proposes a textual analysis of all the Hartapu inscriptions, together with an assessment of the archaeological and historical contexts in which they were found. In light of this, we argue that only one individual called Hartapu was responsible for the whole corpus and that he reigned during the Middle Iron Age, likely in the 8thcentury BCE.

Khosrow II (590–628 CE)

Khosrow II (r. 590–628 CE) was the last great Sasanian king who took the throne with the help of the Romans and broke with dynastic religious preferences as he became married to a Christian empress. It was under his rule that the Sasanian Empire reached its greatest expansion. From the standpoint of iconographic studies, Khosrow II is among the most influential Persian kings. Although he was literally occupied by rebels and wars within the borders of the Sasanian territories and beyond, Khosrow managed to create a powerful image of himself that emphasized the legitimacy of his monarchy. Indeed, Khosrow Parviz (the Victorious) drew upon royal iconography as a propaganda tool on a wide range of materials such as rock and stucco reliefs, coins, seals, and metal plates. His image (created both visually and verbally) not only revived the traditional iconography of the Persian kings but also evolved it in a way that transcended his time and was passed on to the early Islamic Caliphates after him. Khosrow II imitated and manipulated the traditional royal iconography of his predecessors in order to display his legitimacy, piety, and valor.

In the midst of great kings: the monumentalization of text in the Iron Age Levant

The Bar-Rakib Palace Inscriptions from Zincirli have received relatively little attention from philologists and archaeologists alike because of their predictable and derivative content. However, these monuments provide an unparalleled insight into the monumentalization of text in the Iron Age Levant. As might be expected, Bar-Rakib's Aramaic inscriptions and reliefs repeat themes and tropes from other monuments. They also were strategically deployed at the site so as to interact with nearby monuments left by earlier rulers. What has received less attention is the fact that Bar-Rakib's monuments also shared many artistic tropes with small finds from Zincirli, including letters, incantation plaques, seals, and amulets. These correspondences suggest that monumental texts functioned by appropriating aspects of personal artifacts to be used on a communal scale. By projecting not only prestige but also intimacy, Bar-Rakib's inscriptions invited their audience to interact with them in imaginative ways. As the audience related to the monumental texts through acts of reading, viewing, and ritual, they would in turn reconfigure their own relationships to other communicative media, places, each other, and the polity as a whole. It was this ability to relate to communities and thus reshape them that made a text monumental in the Iron Age Levant. This was accomplished through the strategic juxtaposition of text with visual and performative media in particular spatial contexts.

Rediscovering the Contemporary Relevance of National Security Strategies in Divya Upadesh: A History-Policy Relationship

Rediscovering the past to build a secure future is better realized by understanding the role of history in policy making. Today, while Nepal’s national security policies remain silent about the geopolitical threats, it is timely to rediscover the guidelines on national security strategies introduced in Divya Upadesh, a Divine Counsel of the Great King Prithivi Narayan Shah. Currently, Nepal inability in escaping the geostrategic challenge of accommodating the interest of major powers is explicitly visible in the fiasco created by the Nepali political parties in the context of Nepal’s uncertainty over US-sponsored MCC project, which is today perceived in Nepal as hostile to China-led BRI. Historically, Nepal has successfully balanced its two Gulliverian neighbors. But, today, Nepal is not in a position to evade the repercussions triggered by Sino-Indian rivalry at the regional front and Sino-US strategic competition at the global level. On the backdrop of their conflicting interest—strategic, security, economic—Kathmandu faces the geostrategic challenges of accommodating the interest of major powers. Although Nepal’s integrated foreign policy of 2020 mentions of the changed geopolitical context, pragmatic policy recommendations, as indicated by foreign policy behavior, are missing. Constitutional guidelines on Nepal’s foreign policy and national security alone are not sufficient. Thus, drawing lessons from history could be of help to formulate the national security strategies in order to better cope with the external threats. The rationale behind considering Divya Upadesh is to make Nepali policy makers realize that the national security strategies and policies that Nepal adopted in a usual/normal context won’t be able to fulfill the requirements of the uncertain strategic milieu against the backdrop of a ‘new Cold War’ brewing between the United States and China. In the late 18th century when P.N Shah was introducing a comprehensive national security policy for the first time, the external environment wasn’t much favorable. After his death, however, instead of paying heed to his guidelines, expansionism ended up to territorial loss, adventurism led to Himalayan wars, appeasement led to increasing British influence in Nepal. After 1950, guidelines in Divya Upadesh have been more confined to history books and classrooms lectures. While Nepal lionizes its act of balancing India and China though the policy of non-alignment and equidistance, foreign and security policy makers never paid attention to reinvent the lesson for the same. Thus, this qualitative study recuperates the relevance of effective balancing as advocated by PN Shah in addressing the challenges surfaced while accommodating the interests of major powers. Most of the available literature on Divya Upadesh are either translated English versions, or limited to the analysis of the unification process. The relevance of an intersection of foreign policy and national security in Divya Upadesh is not unveiled by any of the available literature. Apprehending the same research gap, this study explores the contemporary significance of Divya Upadesh while devising the national security policies and strategies. Firstly, the contemporary challenges to Nepal’s national security prompted by Kathmandu’s struggle in accommodation of the interest of major powers is discussed; secondly, the policy of ‘balancing’ counseled by Prithivi Narayan Shah is emphasized as an apt and relevant in dealing with the contemporary challenges emanating from the neighborhood and beyond. Thirdly, “meticulous diplomacy,” is highlighted to offer economic shape to the act of balancing. Finally, it has been realized how studying history means studying causes, and as such, turning the pages of Divya Upadesh, policy makers discover the causes of Nepal’s failure in accommodating the interest of major powers.

ECONOMIC POLICY OF THE MONGOL EMPIRE (1206-1405)

Summary After the founding of the Great Mongol Empire, Chinggis Khaan, and his successors faced the task of pursuing sound economic policies. This is because the prospects for the existence and development of Great Mongolia would ultimately be measured by economic development. The kings of the Great Mongol Empire, led by Chinggis and Ogedei, believed that nomadic animal husbandry should be the basis of the economy of the united power, and emphasized the development of animal husbandry. Chinggis Khaan introduced the millennial system, the most appropriate form of organization in the situation, to nomadic pastoralism. The Great Kings also sought to promote trade by supporting foreign traders by exempting them from customs duties and taxes, and by protecting their interests and security. However, unfair trade, exploitation, and bribery were strictly forbidden. At the same time, one of the reasons for the victory and success of the Great Mongol Empire was the development of communications, including stations, which were rigidly organized and transmitted faster than the settled civilizations of the time. Thus, Chinggis Khaan and his successors were able to correctly define the economic policy of the Great Mongol Empire and to develop animal husbandry, trade and communication in a coordinated manner, which created the basic conditions for the long-term existence of the Great Mongol Empire.