Gravestone Inscriptions Research Articles

A comparison of ligatures on gravestones in Scotland, Northern Germany and the French Basque region

Although ligatures have a long history and can be found on a range of artefacts, they are particularly characteristic of gravestone inscriptions of the 17th and 18th centuries in several parts of Western Europe. The grouping of two or more letters as a ligature can be attributed to minimising mason’s costs and workload, or stone brittleness, but it is suggested that their function was primarily a space-saving device. This research, based solely on statistical analysis, suggests that there may be other, possibly more common, reasons as to why they were employed in gravestone inscriptions. Ligatures have an uneven distribution throughout Western Europe. They are especially frequent in gravestone inscriptions from north and south-west Scotland, Northern Germany and the French Basque region. These areas were selected for analysis. Ligatures were recorded from 36 sites in northern and south-western Scotland, 35 sites in Northern Germany and 24 sites in the French Basque region. Frequencies at each site were calculated. The most common ligature in Scotland and north Germany was HE and in the French Basque region it was DE. All ligature frequencies were compared with the frequencies of bigrams in English, German and French to determine whether or not this influenced their frequency in gravestone inscriptions. It was found that there was no evidence of correlation between gravestone ligatures and bigrams in any of the three languages. The possible reasons for the use of ligatures are discussed.

The Death Taboo: Euphemism and Metaphor in Epitaphs from the English Cemetery of Malaga, Spain

In spite of the fact that taboos change over time, death is still a delicate and sensitive subject in today’s Western societies. Our unwillingness to talk openly about death and dying makes people resort to euphemism as a safe way to talk about human mortality and related matters. Following Steen’s Deliberate Metaphor Theory, this study discusses the role that euphemistic metaphors play on a sample of 174 gravestone inscriptions from the English Cemetery of Malaga, the oldest Protestant cemetery in Spain, and, at the same time, examines the social and cognitive aspects of metaphor in epitaph writing. The analysis carried out reveals that most of the 96 metaphorical items observed in the gravestone inscriptions present positive connotations. Indeed, the source domains of rest, peace, new life and journey offer an optimistic and comforting approach to death and dying, whereas the domains of loss and separation refer to the target domain of death in negative terms. All in all, the metaphors encountered in the epitaphs are deliberately used both to help the bereaved confront the loss of a loved one and pay tribute to the deceased.

Religious people only live longer in religious cultural contexts: A gravestone analysis.

Religious people live longer than nonreligious people, according to a staple of social science research. Yet, are those longevity benefits an inherent feature of religiosity? To find out, we coded gravestone inscriptions and imagery to assess the religiosity and longevity of 6,400 deceased people from religious and nonreligious U.S. counties. We show that in religious cultural contexts, religious people lived 2.2 years longer than did nonreligious people. In nonreligious cultural contexts, however, religiosity conferred no such longevity benefits. Evidently, a longer life is not an inherent feature of religiosity. Instead, religious people only live longer in religious cultural contexts where religiosity is valued. Our study answers a fundamental question on the nature of religiosity and showcases the scientific potential of gravestone analyses. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

Lancaster Pet Cemetery Memorial Plaques 1951–2018: An Analysis of Inscriptions

ABSTRACTIndividuals in many cultures have a close relationship with their pets and think of them not only as companion animals but also as family. Research on the ways in which people memorialize their deceased pets has become increasingly important, and pet cemetery gravestone inscriptions have provided a way to examine the evolution of the human–animal bond. Past studies of the inscriptions on gravestones have been largely qualitative, whereas our longitudinal study of the 2,695 memorial plaques from 1951 to 2018 in the Lancaster Pet Cemetery in the United States allows for a quantitative analysis of the inscriptions and what they reveal about pets, owners, and people’s relationship with their pets over time. The results showed that nearly all plaques listed the pet’s name as well as the pet’s year of birth and year of death. Identifying the type of pet on the plaque increased over time as did the use of a bronze cast or picture to identify the type of pet, nearly all of which were dogs or cats. The use of gendered human names for pets increased over time, particularly for families and male-female couples. The types of owners remained relatively stable over time, with about two-thirds of pets belonging to families and male-female couples; however, the way in which owners listed themselves on the plaques changed over time. Words on the memorial plaques that increased over time included “love/loved,” “you,” “Mommy/Daddy,” and “missed,” and described the owner relative to the pet or feelings about it. On the other hand, the word that decreased most over time was “pet.” For the most part, there was little variation in the words by type of pet or type of owner. Many of the findings signaled an increasing tendency for people to think of their pets as family. Suggestions for future research are also included.

Revisiting Epigraphic Evidence of the Oldest Synagogue in Morocco in Volubilis

Volubilis was a Roman city located at the southwest extremity of the Roman Empire in modern-day Morocco. Several Jewish gravestone inscriptions in Hebrew, Greek, and Latin, likely from the 3rd century CE, have been found there. One of them belongs to “Protopolites Kaikilianos, the head of a Jewish congregation (synagogue)”, and it indicates the presence of a relatively big Jewish community in the city. The Hebrew inscription of “Matrona, daughter of Rabbi Yehuda” is unique occurrence of using the Hebrew language in such a remote region. The Latin inscription belongs to “Antonii Sabbatrai”, likely a Jew. In addition, two lamps decorated with menorahs, one from bronze and one from clay, were found in Volubilis. In nearby Chellah, a Jewish inscription in Greek was also discovered. We revisit these inscriptions including their language, spelling mistakes, and their interpretations. We relate epigraphic sources to archaeological evidence and discuss a possible location of the synagogue in this remote city, which was the first synagogue in Morocco.

ON THE DATE OF BIRTH OF PATRIARCH HADRIAN OF MOSCOW AND ALL RUSSIA

The Russian historiographic sources recognize three probable birth dates of Hadrian, the last Patriarch of Moscow and all Russia in 17th century, i.e.1627, 1637 and 1639. The fourth date, 1636, is not widely recognized. Two epitaphs to the Patriarch Hadrian, both written by Karion Istomin, a major court poet of that time, serve as the main source of information about the life of the head of the Russian Church. The first epitaph is prosaic, mounted on his tomb in the shrine of the heads of the Russian Church in the Assumption Cathedral in the Moscow Kremlin, and the second is poetic, preserved in the papers of the poet. . This paper establishes that the cause of chronological differences were errors in reading and interpreting the date of the Patriarch's death in the prosaic epitaph, which were made in historical studies of the 19th - early 20th century and without cross-checking with the gravestone inscription were reproduced in various publications. A visual study of the prosaic epitaph, conducted by the author in March 2014, indicates that Patriarch Hadrian died on October 2, 1700 at the age of 62 . The same date is written in the poetic epitaph. The “birthday” of Patriarch Hadrian (October 2), also raises doubts; most likely this date originated in the 19th century on the basis of the day of his baptism. The conducted research on the base of combination of archival sources and critical analysis of the writings of historians of the 19th - early 20th centuries established that Patriarch Hadrian was born in 1638.

A sociological analysis of moves in the formation of Iranian epitaphs

Abstract This study investigated various manifestations of gravestone inscriptions to find different types of moves in the formation of such inscriptions in two Iranian social classes. The sample of the study included forty epitaphs in two shrines in the north and west of Tehran. Each epitaph was then photographed for analysis. Swales’ genre move model was used to analyze the data. The moves involved word choice, content, graphics, socio-cultural values, and written communicative practices. Considering socio-cultural factors characterizing the social classes, the results revealed four moves in the epitaphs in the Shrine located in north of Tehran, and eight moves in the Shrine located in west of Tehran. Out of the total of eight moves observed, three were different in the two classes. Comparing these patterns of moves and their frequencies, various emotional, structural, lexical, gender-specific, and age-specific differences were observed.

ІСТОРИКО-КУЛЬТУРНЕ ЗНАЧЕННЯ НАДГРОБКІВ ЄВРЕЙСЬКОГО ЦВИНТАРЯ М. ГЛУХОВА

In 2018 the author of this article carried out field works at the Jewish cemetery of Glukhov town which consisted of searching of the remained gravestones, including basis fragments and also the whole monuments or their parts which went deeply to the ground and grassed. Cleaning and photofixing of all found objects were made. On the basis of these field works, the author of the article revealed 1040 objects that are in varying degrees of preservation. From them 438 objects are completely preserved gravestoness, which are among the historical burials and date from the beginning of the XIX century - 1930 year. Based on a number of works on the history of Glukhov town and the local Jewish community, as well as Jewish necropolis, ethnography, linguistics and epigraphy, the author of the article conducted (based on general scientific methods and a special method - identification) a comprehensive study of the Jewish cemetery of Glukhov and its gravestones as objects of cultural heritage. The purpose of this publication is to present the results of this research. Absolutely all these monuments of Glukhow Jewish cemetery can serve as a source of genealogical information and are of interest to genealogical researchers and descendants searching for the graves of their ancestors, and also, due to their concentration, can serve as invaluable material for various studies in the field of necropolis, socio-demographic and sanitary - municipal history. At the same time, the epitaphs of the surviving ancient Jewish gravstones are the specific literary phenomenon, occupying an intermediate position between traditional rabbinic and folk literature and culture. During this research, 2 monuments which epitaphs have literary value were revealed. These are the gravestones of the Jewish writer, publicist and the teacher Lazar Davidovich Tsveyfel and the merchant of the 2nd guild, the public official of Glukhov City Council, the juror of Glukhov district Zalman Ariev Esmansky. In addition, the gravestone inscriptions of these monuments have value in terms of the totality of the personalities of the deceased and the epitaphs on their gravestones. The carved decor of the gravestones of Glukhov Jewish cemetery is an example of original folk decorative and applied art, it has a peculiar style, figurative language and has artistic value. Of the total number of tombstones of Glukhov Jewish cemetery, 46 steles have ornaments that are distinguished by a complex, time-consuming development of carving and artistic taste.These monuments are of interest for various art criticism studies and have significance as exhibits demonstrating the most interesting elements of the art of decorative carving of gravestones, its connection with the culture and religion of the Jewish people and the influence of local factors on this type of decorative and applied art. As a historical source, the gravestones of Glukhov Jewish cemetery are confirmed by the well-known historical events of that time - the Jewish riots in Glukhov and the influx of refugees in the period 1914-1916. Of particular interest for researches are data on a concrete personnel. At the Jewish cemetery of Glukhov town, many prominent personalities who made a great contribution to the culture, economy and other spheres of the town’s life are buried. Among them are the Jewish writer, publicist and teacher Lazar Davidovich Tsveyfel, Abram Isaakovich Rusakov - the grandfather of the outstanding Soviet painter and graphic artist Alexander Isaakovich Rusakov and many others.At the time of the end of this research, at least 30 gravestones, due to the historical and cultural significance of the persons buried under them, are of interest to researchers of regional history and can be used for various genealogical, local history and historical studies, as well as in the development and conduct of lecture and sexursion programs on the Jewish places of Glukhov town and specifically on the Jewish cemetery. From the total number of surviving ancient gravestones, a group of monuments which are of interest were identified by one or by a set of criteria. Three types of criteria were taken into account: the value of an epitaph as a historical source or literary phenomenon; art value of carved decor; historical or cultural significance of buried. According to the results of the study, 76 gravestones were included in this group. The article provides a list of gravestones that can be fully considered as objects of cultural heritage and should take the appropriate place in the memorial protection activities of Ukraine.

Rediscovered Gravestones from a Destroyed Jewish Cemetery in Ostróg: The Case of Two Inscriptions of 1445

Abstract The earliest extant gravestone inscriptions from Western Ukraine are from the 16th century; however, some perished monuments of the 15th century have been mentioned in literature. Among these are two 1445 inscriptions from Ostróg published by M. Biber in 1907. The Jewish cemetery in Ostróg was destroyed in 1968, and the two gravestones did not survive. However, several hundreds of gravestones from the destroyed cemetery in Ostróg have been found recently and there are several 17th–19th century epitaphs published by Biber among them. In addition, several photographs of the cemetery and its monuments are kept in the depositary of a local museum, including one presumed 1445 inscription. We have compared these materials with those published by Biber and thus have been able to re-evaluate the authenticity of the 1445 epitaphs. One of them turns out to be of 1520, while the date of the other one remains questionable.

Social Functions of a Pet Graveyard: Analysis of Gravestone Records at the Metropolitan Pet Cemetery in Moscow

ABSTRACTNowadays, pets are often buried, mourned, and remembered as family members; present-day pet cemeteries are starting to resemble human burial grounds. This raises the question of what are the social functions of pet cemeteries. This study is based on the assumption that the main social functions of a cemetery are memorialization, providing a place for communication with the dead, and expressing hope for immortality. Thus, the paper proceeds with an analysis of these social functions on the basis of gravestone records at The Metropolitan Pet Cemetery in Moscow. Analysis of epitaphs suggests that the abovementioned social functions are largely applicable to this cemetery, albeit partly transformed. Companion animals are often commemorated as family members or as close friends of the family. Yet, pet grave inscriptions at the cemetery rarely mention any aspects of the pet’s identity that are relevant out-side their “family fold.” Moreover, gravestone inscriptions express certain ideas on the afterlife of pets. That said, pet owners mostly do not believe that animals possess spirituality. Their afterlife is seen as returning to the family, living “in their hearts.” Thus, animals also lack a spiritual identity. In general, gravestone records could be seen as a means of communication between a pet and its “family” and as the manifestation of personal ties. Therefore, this cemetery, as with any cemetery, serves for memorialization of the dead, for maintaining communication with them, and for expressing beliefs about their afterlife; but all these functions refer mostly to the sphere of private family life.

Aksjologiczna identyfikacja zmarłego w świetle inskrypcji nagrobnych (na materiale nekropolii prawosławnych pogranicza polsko-ukraińskiego)

The article discusses the optional elements of gravestone inscriptions in the Orthodox cemeteries in the eastern part of Lubelszczyzna region. The analysis of positively valued aspects of the earthly life of the person – to whom the inscriptions are devoted – was conducted (e.g. occupation, education, position, social status, scientific degree(s), professional involvement, citizenship, character qualities, etc.). These elements constitute a kind of funerary characteristics of the deceased person, they are also a reflection of the social vision of the proper and decent life.

The Title ‘Rabbi’ in Third- to Seventh-Century Inscriptions in Palestine: Revisited

The title Rabbi is found on gravestone inscriptions and dedicatory inscriptions dating from the third to seventh centuries in Palestine. The title also appears in the rabbinic literature of the same period. A variety of proofs indicate that the title Rabbi in both is identical: it is a professional title, denoting the social status of the rabbinic group. Elucidating the meaning of this title can contribute to an understanding of this group’s perception of itself as well as the way it was perceived by Jewish society at that time.

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Undertaken within the Cultural Inventory Pro­ject of Turkish Academy of Sciences begin­ning from the year 2004, this project aims to make an inventory of the cemeteries and gra­vestones in villages of the Peninsula. The first documentation studies were realized in the villages of Cullu, Hisarcik and Saip in the ye­ars 2004 and 2005. These studies, carried out in parallel with the Rural Architecture Inven­tory Project, revealed that the inscriptions of gravestones might be considered as one of the written sources of rural history. The gra­vestones also provide information concerning the historical geography of the Peninsula through their forms of production and decora­tion repertoire. Following the first studies limited to the villa­ges in the vicinity of Karaburun district center, the inventory studies were expanded to the entire Peninsula in the year 2006, and as of February 2007, the inventory of cemeteries and gravestones in Karaburun Peninsula has almost been completed. The entrance of a great number of gravestones into the inven­tory and the classification of inscriptions will first of all make the inventory database beco­me a consistent and fruitful source of refe­rence. During the field studies carried out in 2006 and early 2007, all gravestones found in the graveyards and cemeteries of the villages were documented, some of the gravestone inscriptions were transcribed at the site, and information was gathered through the intervi­ews with old villagers about the recent his­tory of the cemeteries. The earliest gravesto­ne inscriptions date back to the first quarter of the eighteenth century and are documen­ted in the villages of Catalkaya, Kosedere, Inecik and Tepeboz. Most of the gravestones are from the nineteenth century. On the ot­her hand, the gravestones of the early Repub­lican period the inscriptions of which are writ­ten in Latin alphabet form a characteristic ca­talogue reflecting the transition from the Ot­toman Empire to the young Republic of Tur­key. Despite the serious loss and damage in most of the cemeteries that appears to have occurred within the last sixty years, the survi­ving gravestones still have an important place in the historical and cultural heritage of Kara­burun Peninsula.

Beautiful City of the Dead (review)

Reviewed by: Beautiful City of the Dead Cindy Welch Watts, Leander Beautiful City of the Dead. Houghton, 2006254p ISBN 0-618-59443-4$16.00 R Gr. 6-12 On her first day at a new high school, Zee meets Relly, the boy with "deep red, almost purple" eyes, who loves the same metalhead music she does and seems to exude a shimmery heat. He is part of an as yet unknown four-piece band, Scorpio Bone, and she auditions as a bass player for him, a drummer named Butt, and a surpassingly beautiful lead singer called Jerod. From the first song, each senses they are creating something beyond regular music, something Relly calls "ghost music," when the sound is so loud and overwhelming that it creates a silence in which other sounds can be heard. The four are actually elementals, gods of fire (Relly), [End Page 41] water (Zee), air (Jerod), and earth (Butt) who have been drawn together to form a unit, "just four and no more." They aren't the only elementals in town, though, and a rival group that includes the assistant principal and a biology teacher from Zee and Relly's school wants Zee to replace their own mysteriously missing water element. She resists the lure of adult power and the subsequent mind games and physical threats, but when fragile Relly is kidnapped, Zee agrees to complete the rival quartet. Treachery is afoot: they mean to offer Relly as a sacrifice rather than free him, and Scorpio Bone confronts them in a final struggle for power. Watts' latest offering maintains the darkly atmospheric mood of his earlier works (Ten Thousand Charms, BCCB 5/05) while moving the setting to today's Goth culture, where song lyrics come from gravestone inscriptions and bands are named Brain Hammer and Little Black Pill. Though a few supernatural details remain puzzling, the potential love story between Relly and Zee, the supernatural rivalry between teens and adults, and the musical interludes will keep readers turning pages deep into the night. Copyright © 2006 The Board of Trustees of the University of Illinois

Karaburun Yarımadası (İzmir) Mezar Taşları Envanteri 2005 Yılı Çalışmaları: Hisarcık, Ambarseki ve Saip Köyleri

The field studies carried out in the last two years in order to explore and document the architectural heritage of Karaburun Peninsula revealed that the inscriptions of gravestones is one of the primary written sources tor studying rural settlements. The aim of this project, undertaken within the Cultural Inventory Project of Turkish Academy of Sciences beginning from the year 2004, is to make an inventory of the cemeteries and gravestones in villages of the peninsula. The first inventory study was re­alized in the cemetery of Cullu in the year 2004. During the studies carried out in Hisar­cik, Ambarseki and Saip in the year 2005, sur­viving gravestones in the cemeteries of these villages were documented, most of the gravestone inscriptions were transcribed at the site, and information was gathered through the interviews with old villagers about well known families and the recent history of the cemeteries. The cemetery of Hisarcik remained outside the inhabited area of the village due to the to­pography and it is scattered on the southern slopes. It is noteworthy that the gravestones were to some extent grouped at different le­vels and in some places ancient architectural fragments were used as gravestone without any alteration. The cemetery of Saip, which is now almost entirely disappeared, seems to have developed around the mosque as it was in the village of Cullu, while the cemetery of Ambarseki was situated at a lower level than that of the mosque. The earliest gravestone inscriptions are dated 1153/1740-1741 in Hi­sarcik, 1235/ 1819-1820 in Ambarseki and 1016/ 1607-1608 in Saip. Unfortunately, a great number of gravestones from the ceme­teries of these villages, particularly those in Saip, are lost. The gravestones found in Cullu, Hisarcik, Am­barseki and Saip not only give some referen­ces concerning settlement history of the villa­ges, but also point out the interrelations bet­ween the settlements of the Aegean geog­raphy. Besides, we can get information from the inscriptions about certain families of the villages, status and its expression in the rural society and the attitudes of the society to­wards death. The gravestones also draw at­tention to the forms of gravestone production within the region as well as displaying the de­coration repertoire extended to the rural ge­ography and sometimes enriched with local contributions.

Amazing Grace: An Anthology of Poems about Slavery, 1660-1810 (review)

Reviewed by: Amazing Grace: An Anthology of Poems about Slavery, 1660–1810 Philip D. Morgan (bio) Amazing Grace: An Anthology of Poems about Slavery, 1660–1810. Edited by James G. Basker. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2002. 784 pages. Review 1 In a heroic undertaking of nearly 800 pages, James G. Basker has assembled approximately 400 poems, or poetic fragments, about slavery that were published in English by more than 250 writers. He likens the project to a "vast archaeological dig" (xxxiii); his excavations have uncovered everything from beautiful masterpieces to humdrum shards, from operas and musical comedies, through dramatic pageants and epics, to doggerel and gravestone inscriptions. He confines the temporal boundaries of his anthology to the "long" eighteenth century. Before about 1660, he notes, slavery was not of major cultural or economic importance in the English Atlantic, and after about 1810, "slavery in British and American cultural life became two different stories" (xxxviii). Within this period, then, he sees an essentially unified Anglophone world, and his aim is to be as inclusive as possible. The volume incorporates poems, or parts of poems, that bring "slavery into view, whether as its main subject, in a single passage or character, or, more glancingly, in bits of allusion or metaphor" (xxxiii). Basker knows he has not identified every poem that mentions slavery (perhaps a supplement will be forthcoming); in some cases, particular poems about slavery are known to have existed but are no longer recoverable. Nevertheless, this collection is remarkably comprehensive, reprinting a substantial amount of verse for the first time. If slavery was important in the Anglo-American collective imagination, it became increasingly so over the period of this anthology. This study documents the emergence of a widespread awareness of the subject. The century 1660–1760 saw the publication of less than a fifth of the poems included in this anthology, whereas the half century from 1760 to 1810 [End Page 565] witnessed a mounting surge of publications, with the last two decades accounting for 45 percent of the total. In the late seventeenth century, the mention of slavery was often incidental; by the end of the period, whole epics were devoted to the subject. Apparently, a lag existed between the sentiments of most poets and the reality of an expansive and vibrant institution. The cultural and economic significance of slavery was evident by the turn of the eighteenth century. By then most British colonial trade was dependent on the labor of enslaved people. Yet the upsurge in poetic interest in slavery took largely an antislavery position. More than nine of every ten poems challenged and denounced slavery; only an insignificant minority (beginning with John Saffin in 1701 and encompassing most notably James Boswell in 1791) defended the institution. As Basker notes, the "poems at the very close of the book mark an almost uniform crescendo of jubilation. The slave trade had been abolished on both sides of the Atlantic and slavery itself seemed destined to end soon after" (xlvii). But why was so little proslavery verse written?1 This question needs answering. Why confine the anthology just to poetry? Basker's answer is essentially twofold. One reason is pragmatic: it is a way to delimit the material, include a wide range of a single literary form, and thereby establish webs of affiliation and association among the varied practitioners. The other reason is idealistic: poetry, it is claimed, can best speak to the unspeakable. Though conceding that the quality of the included material "varies wildly, from the sublime to the insufferable" (xxxiii), Basker maintains that poetry best transforms ugliness into beauty, sin into virtue. The transformative power of poetry commands attention. Thus, the hymn that gives the book its title derived from a penitent slave trader, John Newton, who in 1779 celebrated his deliverance from the sinfulness of the slave trade. He was the wretch, once lost then found, once blind but who now can see, saved by amazing grace, how sweet the sound. And the poem later underwent its own transmutation, assuming a life as a Negro spiritual. It is a metaphor for the best work in this anthology, yet Wylie Sypher was not far wrong when describing much...

Literature and Dissent in Milton's England

GARRETT ft 135 economic cost, according to popular sources, though there are also many examples ofprescriptive Uterature aimed at the lack ofproductivity exhibited by men who drank. Martin's book is impressive in its geographical, literary, and historical range, but this wide scope necessitates breadth rather than depth. The book's strengthlies in the wealth ofcultural materialsMartin places at ourfingertips— examples of which include popular ballads, statistical analyses of annual per capita consumption ofalcohol based on tax records, court records, and more. What it lacks, though, is a thorough investigation ofthe sexual ideology upon which the attitudes toward alcohol, sex, and gender are predicated. In his conclusion , Martin asserts that "traditional Europe had a sexual double standard and a drinking double standard. Just aswomen were expected to maintain their chastity so also were they expected to maintain their sobriety. The two double standards were Unked because ofthe widespread opinion that a sober women was chastewhUe a drunkwoman was promiscuous" ( 134). The relationship between the double standards is more complicated than this explanation aUows, and a briefdiscussion ofthe humoral body and biblical tenets related to sexual ideologywould complicate this argument in a more satisfactorymanner. OveraU , though, this book furthers the dialogue on the topic ofgender and alcohol first broached by Judith M. Bennett's Ale, Beer, and Brewsters in England: Women's Work in a Changing World, 1300-1600 (1996). The breadth ofMartin 's subject matter lays out manyfertUe fields in which scholars can further explore the relationships between early modern material practices and ideology, particularly as they relate to alcohol, sex, and gender. Sharon Achinstein. Literature and Dissent in Milton's England Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003. xii + 302 pp. $60.00. Reviewed by Christopher E. Garrett In Literature and Dissent in Milton's England, Sharon Achinstein challenges some prevaUing perceptions about the culture and literature ofthe English Restoration. For example, Achinstein opposes those who think that MUton was "merelya holdover from the Renaissance" (3) and disputes the notion that Dissenters "retreated from the radical activism oftheir revolutionary days" (20). Dissenters, she writes, used Uterature to create "a vibrant culture" and make "sense oftheir experience ofloss" (3). Achinstein also shows "how their literature was embedded in significant social action. For many Dissenters . . . MUton included, the prime chaUenge was to maintain commitment to God 136 i« THE JOURNAL FOR EARLY MODERN CULTURAL STUDIES despite persecution" (3). Although the book examines "the changing nature of reUgious radicaüsm on theeveofthe Enlightenment, specificaUywith respect to reUgiouslymotivatedviolence" (4), in the darkshadowsofSeptember 1 1, 2001, the author also desires to Uluminate both the potential hazards and advantages ofcombining political action and religious license. The opening chapter, "Reading Dissent," provides a comprehensive introduction to the Dissent tradition, and describes the origins ofnonconformist culture in England. Although admitting that Restoration Dissenters were a diverse group, Achinstein works toward defining their common characteristics. In response to theAct ofUniformity in 1662 and other laws passed in the 1660s and 1670s regarding religious practices, those who refused to participate in mandated Anglican ceremonies were identified as nonconformists and labeled as criminals. By the end ofthe seventeenth century approximately six percent ofEngland's population was comprised ofDissenters (over 340,000 individuals ). Many ofthese claimed immediate and individual inspiration ofthe Holy Spirit and also maintained chUiastic hopes. From the opposing Anglican view, nonconformist religion was perceived to be not only radical but also politicaUy dangerous; furthermore, there was concern regarding the consequences of "wide biblical access, antinomianism, and inspired religion" (18). Chapters 2-8 address the foUowing topics: "Memory," "Prison," "Violence ," "MUton," "Enthusiasm," "Poetics," and "Hymns." Chapter 2 establishes howDissenters rememberedthe past, present, and future through funeral sermons, pubUc wüls, and gravestone inscriptions. Since the public gatherings ofnonconformists were Ulegal, when large crowds would assemble, such as the fourto five thousand who attended Baptist preacher HenryJessey's funeral, political officials worried about revolt and disturbance. TypicaUy these events were peaceful, although the Dissenters found ways to show their solidarity and defiance. Through their published wUls (which were often read and distributed at the funeral ceremonies) and tombstone inscriptions, the dead were able to speak words ofrage and vengeance that those living could not utter. Achinstein contends that those nonconformists ofthe various...

Creating Special Literature Resource Databases in Western China Under a Digital Environment

This paper addresses the issue of special literature database resources in the creation of Chinese database groups, and it holds that the extremely rich Chinese literature resources should naturally become an indispensable part of global information resource networks. Nevertheless, the digitization foundation for Chinese literature resources, having been subject to various factors, is still very weak. Among other things, there is yet no relevant scientific awareness for guiding macro policy stipulations, and from a micro-perspective there are no complete technical solutions available for realizing the digitized project goals. The national program for Western China development currently has provided us with an opportunity to establish a paradigm. The rational development and digitization of the local literatures, rare copies of ancient Chinese manuscripts, and those cultural resources indigenous to the minority nationalities and ethnic groups in Western China, will greatly enrich Chinese digital resources on the Internet and enhance the position of the Chinese literature resource database groups on the global information resource platform.

Getting Lucky with The Wars

I am teenager in Toronto suburb. It is the winter of 1978-79. As far as I can tell, no one around here fights for ideals or dies for passion or even has sex for the hell of it. I'm 18, late to books compared to many, but suddenly, wholly besotted. Nothing in my happy split-frame house, my street-hockeyed, garbage-binned block, my Toronto Star and TV Guide neighbourhood, can possibly compare with the Joads along the road to California or the magical goings on in Macondo. Colonel Benido is tied to tree for century! Sarah Joad offers her teat to dying old man! (Too much, that one. My English teacher passes over the image in silence.) Sweat-palmed and astonished, I lay siege to the paperback shelves Fiction and Canadiana carefully distinguished - at the nearby Coles. More Marquez and Steinbeck, Graham Greene and Gunter Grass, Hemingway (of course) and Muriel Spark (go figure): I read and read, in part for the stories, in part for the characters, in part simply for the hardness, the don't-look-away, the thisis-how-things-really-are. Canadiana, where picture books on geese mingle freely with Pierre Burton hardcovers, is pillaged with less avidity. An early group purchase, half-dozen dreary paperbacks from the New Canadian Library, ended unhappily. I've much good to say now about Morley Callaghan and Ethel Wilson (there's still no defending Ernest Buckler), but that winter, they just weren't doing it. Who has Seen the Wind, studied at school, has left positive but vague impression - a tremendous amount of wheat, as Woody Allen joked about Russian epics in Love and Death - and Fifth Business, while obviously of quality, feels too posh and decanted, too Brit. Then I notice paperback cover. A crimson poppy. Soldiers stepping through barbed wire. A blunt title - The Wars - bluntly boldfaced. (It takes half reading to notice the plural. It takes second reading to begin to fathom the complexity of that s.) Another poppy on the back, set in pure black, some blurbs and copy, and an author name in modest caps. A man named Findley. From Toronto. A former actor. Writes lot for TV. I buy The Wars for $2.50. In my basement bedroom, Jean Beliveau skating towards me from an old poster, CFRB drifting down from the kitchen radio overhead, I step into mad scene with horses and dog and young man called Robert Ross. A man about my age, but an officer in the Canadian army in France. A man (boy?) who lived with his parents until enlisting. A man/boy from mid-town Toronto, albeit more than half century before. Not so far from my bunker bedroom, I decide. Not so far from my suburb. I don't read The Wars in one sitting. I also don't ever quite leave the story - or is it the feeling of story that we carry around? - even when the book is out of my hands. By the time Findley provides the gravestone inscription: EARTH AND AIR AND FIRE AND WATER ROBERT R. …

Emily Dickinson and Her Contemporaries: Women's Verse in America, 1820-1885

Elizabeth A. Petrino places the Belle of Amherst within the context of other nineteenth-century women poets and examines the feminist implications of their work. Dickinson and contemporaries like Lydia Sigourney, Louisa May Alcott, and Helen Hunt Jackson developed in their writing a rhetoric of duplicity that enabled them to question conventional values but still maintain the propriety necessary to achieve publication. To demonstrate these strategies, Petrino examines both Dickinson's poetry and a range of women's genres, from the child elegy to the discourse of flowers. She also enlists contemporary magazines, unpublished professional correspondence, even gravestone inscriptions and posthumous paintings of children to explain what Petrino calls the most significant fact of Dickinson's literary biography, her decision not to publish.