Grand Duke Research Articles

Patronage, Lineage, and Self-Promotion in Maso da San Friano's Naples "Double Portrait"

Florentine painter Tommaso Manzuoli's (called Maso da San Friano, 1531-71) 'Portrait of Two Men' (1556), held in the Museo Nazionale di Capodimonte in Naples, depicted an older and a younger man similarly dressed and coiffed discussing the ground plan of a basilica. The older man was Lorenzo D'Andrea di Martino di Piero di Pagno Pagni (d. ca. 1565), secretary to Cosimo I de' Medici (1519-74), called the Great, duke of Florence and first Grand Duke of Tuscany. The younger man was probably the elder's relative, perhaps the less well-known Zanobi di Lorenzo Pagni (d. 1591). The portrait seems to be asserting a mentoring relationship between the two men. This article justifies these identifications by biographical details and reference to other known portraits.

Insignia of the Lithuania's rulers depicted on majesty seals during the end of the 13th and the middle of the 15th centuries: iconographical aspect of political programme

Development of the Lithuanian ruler's status and political context has a direct influence on the formation of seals' portrayal as well as on the seal, as insignia itself. Royal insignia expressed the ideology and symbolism of the ruler's power. They played a significant symbolic and sacral role during the coronation ceremony. The oldest royal insignia are the crown, sword, and lance, while the latter lost its significance. Because of the lack of written sources on the coronation and enthronization of Lithuanian kings and grand dukes, seals have enormous advantages over other historical witnesses. The portrayal of figures enriched by additional symbolism gives us a clear impression of what insignia were used. The majesty seals of Mindaugas, Gediminas, Vytautas, Švitrigaila, and Žygimantas Kęstutaitis not only depicted the rulers' insignia but also help us to reconstruct the political conception of these rulers. Different insignia were attributed to different ranks of rulers. According to the sphragistics materials, Mindaugas, being a king, used insignia of royal rank (an orb surmounted by a cross and a flowered sceptre). Gediminas, being a grand duke, also used insignia of royal rank (an orb and a crown) but with a slight difference: the crown is in his hand but not on his head. The sword, together with the mitra (dukes' cap), is a very important insignia of grand dukes. The portrayal figures of Vytautas, Švitrigaila, and Žygimantas Kęstutaitis seals have these insignia. The sword, being one of the oldest insignia, was already depicted on the Lithuanian rulers' seals with mounted and unmounted warriors. The sphragistic data also shows that the sword was a prerogative of rulers and was not used by those who only belonged to the ruling dynasty. Examining the Lithuanian seals' data, one could prove that the iconographical programme was influenced not only by the medieval sphragistic tradition but also by political aspirations. The seals were not only a sign of authority but also expressed the status of the Lithuanian ruler and political realities during the 13th and 15th centuries. The portrayal figure of the seal conveys, even if sometimes only symbolically, the ideal of the sovereignty of the person using it.

Luca Marenzio. The Career of a Musician Between the Renaissance and the Counter-Reformation

Contents: Preface Competition and pre-eminence First fruits of genius on the world stage Cardinal d'Este Maestro di cappella Secular music for a prince of the church The 'buon compagno' pope The Ferrarese interlude 'Gentildonne' Roman confraternities Homeland and compatriots 'Musici di Roma' 'Stravaganze d'amore' The new pope A job in Mantua? 'His heart in France' A 'new aria' The grand duke's wedding Orsini and Montalto The peak of his career From Vatican Palace to Polish court Repentance? The 'Wise Fool' The Platonic spirit A new style Order and significance Seconda prattica and second Renaissance Bibliography Index of compositions by Marenzio General index.

Glorifying War in a Peaceful City: Festive Representation of Combat in Baroque Siena

Urban elites across early modern Europe practised a variety of playful activities that extolled martial virtues. In Siena under the Medici grand dukes, nobles played at war for an urban audience, and celebrated those among them who had experienced the real thing. Tuscan cities staged mock-combat games of mazzoscudo, organized jousts and assembled cavalcades of mounted honour-guards whose regalia evoked chivalric themes. These festivities contrasted ever more strikingly with a Counter-Reformation of decency, while the aristocracy demilitarized culturally, as well as professionally. If warlike cultures practised more warlike sports, Italian states and society as a whole demilitarized in the course of the late seventeenth century, and these pageants waned in consequence.

Oliver Cromwell's Policy Toward the English Catholics: The Appraisal by Diplomats, 1654-1658

For four years there were reports in western Europe concerning the persecution of the English Catholics by the Lord Protector, so that it was not unusual for the Catholic foreign diplomats residing in London to include their current views of their predicament in many surviving letters in the files of their foreign secretaries.1 At least seven of these diplomats were appointed during this period, and a close look at their reactions can offer a new and informative picture of the recusants as they saw it at different occasions. There were four princes usually represented. The Doge of Venice followed the custom of appointing a representative for a short term so that there were three Venetians sent to the Lord Protector. For a year and a half Lorenzo Paulucci was Agent and Secretary and then recalled in July, 1655. His successor, Giovanni Sagredo, had the rank of ambassador but was appointed elsewhere after eight months, and his embassy was closed for nine months. In April, 1657, Francesco Giavarina reopened it, but he too served for less than a year [End Page 29] until January, 1658. As will be seen, all three were curious about the Catholics and enjoyed giving them access to their embassy chapels. The grand duke of Tuscany was pleased with the services of his veteran agent, Amerigo Salvetti, who limited access to his chapel to Italian traders and visitors, but wrote bulletins about the regime's restraints on the "papists." His son Giovanni, born in London, was named his successor in April, 1658. As the diplomats of Portugal were concentrating at this time on commercial agreements, they will not be included here. There remain the diplomats of the two great monarchies of western Europe, Spain and France, who played more visible roles in the Catholic question at different times but without competition.

Au Conn Traire, Professeur Pasteur!

Au Conn Traire, Professeur Pasteur!

The flowering of Florence: botanical art for the Medici

Living immersed in landscapes of great natural beauty, Tuscans have always harboured a deep love of flowers and gardens. During the Renaissance, in intellectual circles this propensity developed naturally into an interest in horticulture and the botanical sciences, subjects that would co-exist in perfect harmony with the Medici family's love of the arts. Published to coincide with an exhibition at the National Gallery of Art, Washington DC, of sixty-eight works of art, primarily from Florentine collections, The Flowering of Florence explores the close ties between art and the natural sciences in Tuscany as seen in the botanical renderings created in Florence for the Medici grand dukes from the late 1500s through the early 1700s. The catalogue comprises an essay and checklist with reproductions of the exquisite works in the show. Examples include Jacopo Ligozzi's plant drawings in tempera on paper from the Uffizi Gallery, Giovanna Garzoni's fruit and flower paintings on vellum, and Bartolomeo Bimbi's later and much larger still-life paintings.

The Lithuanian Nobility in the Late-Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries: Composition and Structure

This paper presents a critical review of the historiographically dominant theory stating that the upper layer of the Lithuanian nobility formed its independent power only around the middle of the fifteenth century. The extant sources shed little light on the role of the nobility in the political processes of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. A complex of sources, more fully reflecting the specifics of the country, appeared only after the arrival of writing in Lithuania at the end of the fourteenth century. It was only in this period that the place of the nobles in the system of government became evident. Therefore, it is possible to speak about a distorted perspective, suggested by the early records. The paper presents a definition of the nobility and an analysis of the origin, composition and structure of the Lithuanian ruling elite in the late fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. Consequently it is possible to speak about the prerequisites of the rule of this social group and the duality of the power of the grand duke and the nobility. Two principal tendencies of the development of the Lithuanian nobility in the fifteenth century – personal continuity and internal transformation (family structure) – are distinguished.

Title of Lithuanian Ruler Vytautas: When did Vytautas Start to Title Himself as the Grand Duke?

Lithuanian ruler until the Krėva union used to have different titles. Although, in a variety of names, the title of the Lithuanian ruler was superior to those of the ruling dynasty. As a consequence of the Krėva union, the title of the Lithuanian ruler was being formed in a framework of two poles: on one side it was the title of Jogaila as the king of Poland, and on the other side, it was the title of Vytautas - a local and later an independent ruler of Lithuania.When Jogaila became the king of Poland, the Lithuanian title of the Lithuanian ruler was combined with that of the Polish king. The formation of the title belonging to the local Lithuanian ruler Vytautas was closely related to the title of patrimonial Lithuanian ruler - Jogaila.The first titles defined Vytautas as a local duke ruling over some territories. Under the Astrava treaty, Vytautas became Jogaila's vicegerent in Lithuania. However, on conducting local affairs he did not avoid titling himself as a grand duke of Lithuania in Russian documents. With an increase of his power, Vytautas transferred this title of grand duke to German documents. The relationships with the Orden represent only a very narrow channel with the outside world. At that time the international language was Latin. It was a high-rank diplomatic language. Thus, the Latin document of 1396, where Vytautas titled himself as the grand duke, is of very great importance. With reference to this, we can assume that Vytautas titled himself officially for the first time as the grand duke of Lithuania. Up to 1396, Vytautas was in conformity with the Astrava treaty representing himself as a vicegerent, but from 1396 he stepped over the limits of this treaty.

Unionized Teamsters and the Struggle over the Streets of the Early-Twentieth-Century City

Two political cartoons from the 1905Chicago Tribuneportrayed how some elements in society viewed the rise of a powerful Teamsters Union.On 29 April 1905, the front page cartoon depicted a husky teamster engaged in a sympathetic strike while the caption read, “The Dictator in His Old Act of Blocking Commerce” (Figure 1). A month later, on 3 June 1905, a cartoon played on the coincidence of the June 1905 uprising in Russia and a grand jury investigation of Teamster strike leaders in Chicago. The title caption read, “The Grand Dukes of Russia and the Grand Dukes of Chicago” (Figure 2). Both cartoons emphasized the theme of irresponsible power—either that of a dictatorship or of an unprincipled grand duke. Teamster leaders were tyrants, these images said.The sphere in which this irresponsible power was wielded extended beyond the realm of union affairs, and the relay the true menace conveyed by these images.They asserted that Teamster leaders held it in their power to stop the flow of business activity in Chicago.

L'Enquête Généalogique et Ses Usages dans la Toscane des Médicis

Depuis quelques années, en France comme en Italie, la généalogie a fait un retour remarqué au centre des préoccupations de l'historien. Les spécialistes de la France d'Ancien Régime s'efforcent de retrouver la place exacte de la culture généalogique entre des stratégies nobiliaires appuyées sur le fief ou sur l'office, et les impératifs étatiques d'une monarchic soucieuse d'exercer un contrôle ferme sur les contours de sa noblesse. Dès lors, toute la réflexion critique sur la généalogie d'Ancien Régime est soustendue par une question majeure qui porte finalement sur la reconnaissance publique accordée à la véracité d'un état social privilégié. Elle conduit logiquement à s'interroger sur le durcissement des critères de reconnaissance de la noblesse, et done sur la capacité que s'octroie l'État moderne à trancher souverainement entre verite et fausseté, authenticité et forgerie, légitimité et usurpation.

La Flora and the End of Female Rule in Tuscany

On 14 October 1628 the Medici court witnessed a performance of Marco da Gagliano's opera La Flora, a work whose ostensible purpose was to celebrate a marriage uniting Florence and Parma. This event occurred three months after Ferdinando II assumed the title of grand duke of Tuscany, ending a period of regency government that had begun in 1621, during which Ferdinando's mother and grandmother ruled Tuscany. An analysis of La Flora reveals that its allegorical themes extend beyond mere celebration of a wedding, and that the opera actually reenacts the transfer of power from female to male rule.

Nationhood and roots: Dostoyevsky and Weil on national culture and Europe*

The relationship between religious, national and wider European or global identity' is one of the most disturbing and fascinating questions of the late twentieth century. With the end of National Socialism in Germany and Fascism in Italy, Western Europe was charged with a burst of idealism and hope that never again would the continent be convulsed by the effects of nationalist aggression. The founding fathers of what is now the European Union shaped a clear vision of a Europe whose peoples would proceed towards ever closer union. The means to this end was the integration of the economies of Europe's nation states. On the other side of the 'Iron Curtain', the official ideology also maintained a vision of an international community, though in this case it was an international community of Socialist countries. In retrospect this internationalism seems merely to have been a glossy veneer smeared by Soviet tanks over a bloc of countries no less nationally self-conscious than their western counterparts. Yet while Russians envied Poles, and Czechs and Slovaks envied Hungarians, the ideal that national identity had been superseded was not entirely fictional. The break-up of the Soviet bloc caught almost everyone by surprise. In these contexts, the development of the European Union and the apparent permanence of International Socialism,2 the resurgence of nationalism has been deeply shocking to many. The roles played by religion in recent forms of nationalism have varied, but have been consistently significant. In some forms of nationalism religious and national identity have been fused together. In the East, the Ottoman practice of treating church leaders as both ecclesiastical patriarchs and national ethnarchs confirmed an already strong association between church and nation. In Russia, after the end of the destruction of Byzantium, Moscow came to be seen as the Third Rome. In 1472 the grand duke of Moscow, Ivan the Great, married Sophia, the niece of the last Byzantine emperor, and assumed the Byzantine title of tsar; these developments involved the conscious acceptance by some in the Russian Orthodox tradition of a Byzantine model of the relationship between church and nation. Metropolitan Ioann of St Petersburg once said that 'if Russia isn't your mother, God can't be your Father'.3 Kallistos Ware has noted that while 'the integration of Church and people has in the end proved immensely beneficial' , this close identification of Orthodoxy with the life of the people, and in

Giambologna: narrator of the Catholic Reformation

Arguably the pre-eminent European sculptor of his age, but historically considered little more than the facile court sculptor to the grand dukes of Florence, Giambologna played a major role in the artistic transformations of the late 16th century. Mary Weitzel Gibbons seeks to broaden our hitherto limited view of Giambologna's work by considering his neglected Genoese masterpiece, the Grimaldi Chapel. Although the chapel itself was destroyed during the Napoleonic period, its dazzling bronzes of Virtues and angel-putti and a Passion cycle in relief have survived. The fine detail and rich colour of the bronzes are featured in colour plates and black-and-white images photographed especially for this book. Gibbons reassesses Giambologna's work, clearly defining his relation to the narrative tradition and his role as an artist of the Catholic Reformation. Her insights into the artist's work should appeal to all those intrigued by this turbulent era in Western European history.

The Quantifying Spirit in the Eighteenth Century ed. by Tore Frängsmyr, J. L. Heilbron, and Robin E. Rider

354 Book Reviews TECHNOLOGY AND CULTURE coincidence that papermaking would one day flourish in Pescia and Lucca, as both of them are within easy reach of Leghorn. The difficulties encountered by the Colle paper industry long attracted the attention of government authorities. The author has devoted a large portion of his book to an exhaustive (and at times perhaps overly detailed) discussion of government policies. Deter­ mined to salvage and hopefully to stimulate a stagnant industry, the grand dukes of Tuscany resorted to a variety of protectionist mea­ sures culminating in 1649 in the creation of a state “monopoly” whereby the chief Florentine financial institution (the Monte di Pieta) was granted sole rights to buy linen rags and to market paper in Tuscany, while the actual manufacturing process remained in the hands of private papermakers who received orders from and deliv­ ered the finished products to the Monte di Pietd agents. The paper state monopoly lasted about a century, and, while it succeeded in salvaging the Colle industry by ensuring to it the limited domestic market, it conspicuously failed to improve productivity levels and to make the industry competitive. This is an important, painstakingly researched book. It will be of interest to students of the history of technology as well as of economic history in general. In addition, thanks to its broad comparative perspective, it brings together a wealth of scattered information on Italian papermaking and in doing so helps fill a major gap in the industrial landscape of early modern Italy. Domenico Sella Dr. Sella is professor of history at the University of Wisconsin in Madison. He has written extensively on the economic history of Italy in the 16th and 17th centuries. His publications include Industry and Trade in Seventeenth-Century Venice (1961) and Crisis and Continuity: The Economy of Spanish Lombardy in the Seventeenth Century (1979). He is currently researching the growth of rural industries in north Italy in the early modern period. The Quantifying Spirit in the Eighteenth Century. Edited by Tore Frangsmyr, J. L. Heilbron, and Robin E. Rider. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1990. Pp. viii + 411; illus­ trations, notes, bibliography, index. $35.00. The quantifying spirit—“the passion to order and systematize as well as to measure and calculate”—took hold of European thought during the latter decades of the 18th century. Mathematical methods were applied to numerous problems in such fields as political econ­ omy, artificial language, forest management, and technology. The turning point came around 1760 and thus coincided with Toynbee’s industrial revolution and R. R. Palmer’s democratic revolutions. Causes range from the needs of bureaucratic states to industrial innovation to new political philosophy. TECHNOLOGY AND CULTURE Book Reviews 355 This book is the result of a collaborative research project of historians of science at the University of California at Berkeley and Uppsala University. Each of the thirteen intelligent and elegant essays addresses one area of knowledge that experienced systematization and/or quantification. Several focus on activities in Sweden, activities often ignored or overshadowed in other contexts. Together the essays form a coherent whole that is greater than the sum of the parts, to an extent rarely found in volumes of this sort. In addition, the book provides an excellent critical bibliography of current literature. Part I concerns the rationalization of knowledge. Tore Frangsmyr sets the stage for the rest of the book by his attention to Christian Wolff, the most influential philosopher in the Leibniz tradition. Working in the early part of the century, Wolff applied mathematics to the general exercise of reason but did not use it instrumentally. Gunnar Broberg argues that the rapid explosion of information that occurred during the second half of the 18th century created a crisis for natural historians seeking a classification scheme that would embrace the totality of creation and represent the coherence, and order, they believed to exist in the natural world. Enyclopedists faced the same problem. John Lesch discusses the rise of systematics in botany, mineralogy, chemistry, medicine, and analytic geometry. Robin Rider notes that mathematics offered both information and example to those who sought to reform language, to make it a more rational tool of enlightenment. Part...

A pagan's word: Lithuanian diplomatic procedure 1200–1385

This short paper seeks to illustrate how the last pagan rulers in Europe, the grand dukes of Lithuania conducted their extensive diplomatic relations with their Christian neighbours. The Lithuanians fit into a long tradition of Christian dealings with pagans and show a willingness to adapt their manner of upholding international agreements in accordance with the practices of their partners. It highlights an hitherto ignored note on pagan Lithuanian customs which was written into the margin of his Vergil by the poet and diplomat, Francesco Petrach.

Lorenzo the Magnificent And Gout

To the Editor:— Although the gouty gentleman on your cover of Feb 7 does not qualify, many distinguished men have had gout; among them were members of the Medici family of Florence who in the 16th century engendered the line of the grand dukes of Tuscany. The literature refers especially to Cosimo Pater Patriae (1389-1464); his son Piero (1416-1469), even surnamed Gottoso (the Gouty); and his grandson Lorenzo il Magnifico ( 1449-1492), without whom no list of great or famous people who possessed high uric acid levels in their blood would be complete. The Medicean gout in its relation to drive, achievement and leadership gains new aspects in reference to a family which ruled Florence and Tuscany for several hundred years and whose members excelled as matchless patrons of arts and sciences.

Studies on the Eastern Question Part III. (Continuation from January and April Numbers.) (Chapter I—Bulgarian Independence.)

1. The Chief Executive. — The Christian government of which Article 1 of the Treaty of Berlin speaks was to have as its first element a prince freely elected by the people.This liberty of election was not, however, absolute. A restriction was placed, but only one, we believe: no member of the reigning European dynasties could be elected Prince of Bulgaria. It is easy to discover the reason for this provision, which under a general and impersonal form, was aimed directly at Russia. It was not desired that a grand duke, installed in Bulgaria, should make of the Principality an autonomous province of the Muscovite Empire. Nothing in the protocols of the Congress of Berlin permits the belief that there was any desire to push the precautionary measures further than that. If this condition was fulfilled, that the prince elected by the people should not belong to a reigning dynasty of the Powers, the choice of the Bulgarians would not be contested. Article III states, however, that this choice must be confirmed by the Sultan with the assent of the great Powers. Apart from the single case referred to in the text, could this confirmation and assent have been refused? On this point even the language of the Treaty of Berlin and the protocols of the Congress are not at all clear. It seems that very little concern was shown over the accumulation on this point of the germs of a thousand difficulties. Neither was it foreseen what would be the effect of Article III in case, for instance, only certain Powers should have refused their assent. Would a majority have sufficed or would unanimity have been necessary? And what if the confirmation of the Sultan should have been given while the assent of the Powers had been refused, or inversely ? All are questions difficult of solution. Many constructions have been proposed. The simplest, we believe, is this one. If the election was to be free — and that was the intention of the Congress — the confirmation of the Sultan and the approbation of the Powers should properly have followed an election regularly conducted, that is to say, one in which the person elected did not belong to a reigning family. The opposition of the Sultan or of the Powers, if based upon personal considerations, would have conflicted with the principle of free election. The right of the Sultan was purely honorary. It calls to mind what happens in Egypt where the case is seen of an hereditary Khedive who receives the investiture. In saying “ hereditary ” we imply that the investiture could not be. refused. It is given, however, because nominally the Sultan is the suzerain of the Khedive, as he was, nominally the suzerain of the Prince of Bulgaria.

XXVII. Account of the airs extracted from different kinds of water; with thoughts on the salubrity of air at different places. In a letter from the Abbé Fontanta, director of the cabinet of natural history belonging to his Royal Highness the grand duke of Tuscany, to Joseph Priestly, LL.D, F. R. S

I take the liberty of sending you an account of some experiments which I made Paris in the years 1777 and 1778 on the air extracted from various kinds of waters: some of the principal of which I though proper to transcribe, that you might make use of them if you think that they are at all useful, and likewise lay them before the Royal Society.