Geographic Shifts Research Articles

Ecological niche and potential geographic distributions of Dermacentor marginatus and Dermacentor reticulatus (Acari: Ixodidae) under current and future climate conditions

Abstract. Dermacentor marginatus is a vector disease of both humans and animals and transmits the causative agents of Q fever (Coxiella burnetii) and the spotted fever group (Rickettsia raoultii and R. slovaca), as well as of Crimean–Congo hemorrhagic fever. Dermacentor reticulatus can transmit various pathogens such as Francisella tularensis, Babesia spp., tick encephalitis virus, Coxiella burnetii, Omsk hemorrhagic fever virus, and Rickettsia spp. and can cause serious skin lesions. Herein, ecological niche modeling (ENM) is used to characterize the niches of these two ticks and describe their potential distributional patterns under both current and future climate conditions, as a means of highlighting geographic distributional shifts that may be of public health importance. We assessed distributional implications of five general circulation models (GCMs), under two shared socio-economic pathways (SSP245 and SSP585) for the period 2041–2060. Predictions for D. marginatus showed broad suitable areas across western, central, and southern Europe, with potential for expansion in northern and eastern Europe. Dermacentor reticulatus has suitable areas across western, central, and northern Europe. Under future scenarios, new expansions were observed in parts of northern and eastern Europe and highland areas in central Europe. Despite broad overlap between the niches of the ticks, D. marginatus has a broader niche, which allows it to show greater stability in the face of the changing climate conditions. Areas of potential geographic distributional expansion for these species should be monitored for actual distributional shifts, which may have implications for public health in those regions.

Climate dictates microbial community composition and diversity in Australian biological soil crusts (biocrusts).

The soil surface of drylands can typically be colonized by cyanobacteria and other microbes, forming biological soil crusts or 'biocrusts'. Biocrusts provide critical benefits to ecosystems and are a common component of the largely arid and semi-arid Australian continent. Yet, their distribution and the parameters that shape their microbial composition have not been investigated. We present here the first detailed description of Australia's biocrust microbiome assessed from 15 sites across the continent using 16S rRNA sequencing. The most abundant bacterial phyla from all sites were Cyanobacteria, Proteobacteria, Actinobacteria, Chloroflexi and Bacteroidetes. Cyanobacterial communities from northern regions were more diverse and unclassified cyanobacteria were a noticeable feature of northern biocrusts. Segregation between northern and southern regions was largely due to the differential abundance of Microcoleus spp., with M. paludosus dominating in the north and M. vaginatus dominating in the south. The geographical shifts in bacterial composition and diversity were correlated to seasonal temperatures and summer rainfall. Our findings provide an initial reference for sampling strategies to maximize access to bacterial genetic diversity. As hubs for essential ecosystem services, further investigation into biocrusts in arid and semi-arid regions may yield discoveries of genetic mechanisms that combat increases in warming due to climate change.

Potential impact of climate change on the distribution and conservation status of Pterocarpus marsupium, a Near Threatened South Asian medicinal tree species

Climate change is considered as an important environmental issue globally, affecting geographic distributions of endangered species, and reducing the extent of their natural habitats. We characterized the potential geographic distribution of a Near Threatened tree species, Pterocarpus marsupium, in South Asia. We evaluated the potential geographic distribution of the species under present and future conditions using ecological niche modeling approaches. The future potential distribution of the species was examined under two representative concentration pathway scenarios (RCP 4.5 and 8.5), using outputs from 8 general circulation models for 2050. The present-day distribution of the species covers much of India and Sri Lanka, and parts of Nepal and Bhutan. Model transfers for future-climate conditions indicated a potentially dramatic geographic shift of high-suitability areas for parts of the species' distribution, particularly in central India. In distributional areas that are adjacent to high-mountain areas, under climate change, suitable areas for the species are anticipated to shift towards higher elevations. The results of this study may be useful in identifying currently undocumented populations of P. marsupium, as well as in identifying sites likely to be suitable both at present and in the future for conservation management planning.

Strategies of inclusion: The tradeoffs of pursuing “baked in” diversity through place-based recruitment

US funding agencies have begun to institutionalize expectations that biomedical studies achieve defined thresholds for diversity among research participants, including in precision medicine research (PMR). In this paper, we examine how practices of recruitment have unfolded in the wake of these diversity mandates. We find that a very common approach to seeking diverse participants leverages understandings of spatial, geographic, and site diversity as proxies and access points for participant diversity. That is, PMR investigators recruit from a diverse sampling of geographic areas, neighborhoods, sites, and institutional settings as both opportunistic but also meaningful ways to “bake in” participant diversity. In this way, logics of geographic and institutional diversity shift the question from who to recruit, to where. However, despite seeing geographic and site diversity as social and scientific ‘goods’ in the abstract and as key to getting diverse participants, PMR teams told us that working with diverse sites was often difficult in practice due to constraints in funding, time, and personnel, and inadequate research infrastructures and capacity. Thus, the ways in which these geographic and institutional diversity strategies were implemented resulted ultimately in limiting the meaningful inclusion of populations and organizations that had not previously participated in biomedical research and reproduced the inclusion of institutions that are already represented. These prevailing assumptions about and practices of “baked-in” diversity in fact exacerbate and produce other forms of inequity, in research capacity and research representation. These findings underscore how structural inequities in research resources must be addressed for diversity to be achieved in both research sites and research participants.

Demographic and geographic shifts in the preferred route of methamphetamine administration among treatment cases in the US, 2010–2019

BackgroundMethamphetamine use disorder has increased rapidly in the past decade. Injecting is also increasing and has multifaceted implications for disease severity, overall health, and treatment outcomes, but less is known about where or among whom injecting has shifted the most. This national study assessed temporal changes in the preferred route of methamphetamine administration by race/ethnicity and within urban/rural geographies. MethodsWe used the Treatment Episode Dataset-Discharges (2010–2019) to identify outpatient treatment cases who reported methamphetamine as their primary drug of choice at admission (N = 531,799; 2010 n = 33,744; 2019 n = 81,885). We created a combined variable indicating race/ethnicity and the rural/urban location of treatment, and used logistic regression to model the predicted probability of cases reporting injection, smoking, or snorting as their preferred route of administration. We included an interaction term to determine differences over time (race/ethnicity/rurality*year). ResultsAcross all years, smoking methamphetamine was the most common route of administration (66%), followed by injection (24%) and snorting (10%). Over time and among most sub-groups, the rates of injection increased while the rates of smoking decreased. Compared to 2010, the odds of injecting methamphetamine in 2019 were highest among Black cases in urban areas (aOR = 2.30, 95% CI = 1.76–3.00, p < 0.0001). ConclusionIncreasing methamphetamine injection was most pronounced among Black treatment cases in more urban areas, which is in contrast to the longstanding narrative that methamphetamine is a White and rural drug. Methamphetamine prevention, treatment, and harm reduction should target populations with high injection prevalence and growing incidence.

Changes in the prevalence of child marriage in Ethiopia, 2005–2016

BackgroundChild marriage has powerful implications for a young woman’s reproductive health, education, and personal development as well as the development of communities and nations. Child marriage frequently marks the beginning of a young woman’s sexual activity and early childbearing. As a country where child marriage is common, Ethiopia has placed additional emphasis on addressing child marriage over the past years.MethodsUsing data from Ethiopia Demographic and Health Surveys for 2005, 2011 and 2016, this paper explores trends in child marriage over the last decade in various locations and regions of Ethiopia.ResultsBetween 2005 and 2016, the percentage of young Ethiopian women married before age 18 declined from 49 to 40%, a reduction of 18% from 2005 levels. The percentage of women married before age 15 experienced even greater reductions, declining by 26% in the same period. The greatest reductions in child marriage took place in the Addis Ababa, Amhara, and Tigray regions. Over the period, estimates for Oromia and Somali suggest that child marriage has increased in these regions. Notwithstanding recent declines, Afar, Beneshangul-Gumuz, Somali, and Oromia are regions where nearly half or more of all girls are married before age 18.ConclusionsNationally, Ethiopia has experienced impressive declines in child marriage over the last decade. However, progress has also been uneven. Trends in the last decade have resulted in a geographical shift in where child marriage is most prevalent. In particular, locations that are challenging in terms of access, including the most remote and hard to reach, pose persistent challenges to those attempting to eradicate the practice. Intensifying efforts in rural areas and underserved regions can facilitate further declines in child marriage in Ethiopia.

Personnel Review at age 50: a retrospective using bibliometric analysis

PurposePersonnel Review (PR) is a leading human resource management journal. The article endeavors to provide a retrospective of the journal to commemorate the journal's 50th anniversary.Design/methodology/approachThe article employs a variety of bibliometric analysis techniques such as performance analysis, co-authorship analysis, bibliographic coupling, and negative binomial regression to provide a retrospective of PR.FindingsThe performance analysis suggests that PR has grown steadily in PR's publications and citations. Though most of PR's contributions originate from Europe, a geographical shift toward global contributions has been witnessed in recent years. Besides that, a culture of collaboration among PR authors has manifested and proliferated over time. Though a third of European studies are qualitative and more than 90% of Asian studies are quantitative, PR studies, as a whole, are moving away from conceptual and qualitative to empirical and quantitative research. Next, the bibliographic coupling of the PR corpus indicates five major themes—namely, human resource management policies and practices; personnel competency, experience, and well-being; career management and employee engagement; strategic human resource management; and organizational culture and workplace environment. Finally, the negative binomial regression reveals that article age, abstract and article length and number of keywords and references significantly drive PR citations.Originality/valueThe article represents the inaugural retrospective of PR.

How do global manufacturing shifts affect long-term clean energy innovation? A study of wind energy suppliers

Clean energy technologies are important for meeting long-term climate and competitiveness goals. But clean energy industries are part of global value chains (GVCs), where past manufacturing shifts from developed to emerging economies have raised questions on a decline in long-term innovation. Our research centers on how geographic shifts in the GVC shape long-term innovation, i.e., innovation in a time frame within which “mission-oriented”, societal, or firm strategic objectives need to be met rather than tactical, near-term market competitiveness alone. Focusing on wind energy, we introduce a temporal measure to distinguish between long-term and short-term innovation, applying natural language processing methods on patent text data. We consider supply-side value chain factors (i.e., manufacturing supplier relationships with original equipment manufacturers (OEMs)) and demand-side factors (i.e., policy-induced clean energy market growth), shaping the patenting activities of 358 global specialized wind suppliers (2006–2016). Our findings suggest that the wind industry did not suppress long-term innovation during manufacturing shifts, in this case to China. After 2012 when China developed a large wind market, long-term innovation increased by 80.7% in European suppliers working with non-European OEMs (including Chinese) and by 67.2% in Chinese suppliers working with non-Chinese OEMs. Our results highlight the importance of coupling international manufacturing relationships with sizeable local demand for inducing long-term innovation. Our results advance research in innovation, GVCs, and green industrial policy with implications for several industries that can contribute to climate mitigation.

Tempo and drivers of plant diversification in the European mountain system

There is still limited consensus on the evolutionary history of species-rich temperate alpine floras due to a lack of comparable and high-quality phylogenetic data covering multiple plant lineages. Here we reconstructed when and how European alpine plant lineages diversified, i.e., the tempo and drivers of speciation events. We performed full-plastome phylogenomics and used multi-clade comparative models applied to six representative angiosperm lineages that have diversified in European mountains (212 sampled species, 251 ingroup species total). Diversification rates remained surprisingly steady for most clades, even during the Pleistocene, with speciation events being mostly driven by geographic divergence and bedrock shifts. Interestingly, we inferred asymmetrical historical migration rates from siliceous to calcareous bedrocks, and from higher to lower elevations, likely due to repeated shrinkage and expansion of high elevation habitats during the Pleistocene. This may have buffered climate-related extinctions, but prevented speciation along elevation gradients as often documented for tropical alpine floras.

Over, Under, Sideways and Down: Patterns of Marine Species Richness in Nearshore Habitats off Santa Catalina Island, California

Santa Catalina Island, located off the southern California coast, is home to the Blue Cavern Onshore State Marine Conservation Area (SMCA), which is recognized as a marine protected area. Here, we provide an updated species inventory of nearshore macroalgae, seagrasses, bony and cartilaginous fishes and invertebrates documented inside the Blue Cavern Onshore SMCA. Species richness data were compiled using scuba-based visual surveys conducted in the field, references from the primary and gray literature, museum records, unpublished species lists and online resources. The current checklist consists of 1091 marine species from 18 different taxonomic groups, which represents an ~43% increase in species diversity compared to the value reported previously. These data are indicative of the high biodiversity known from the Southern California Bight (SCB) region. The total number of intertidal and subtidal taxa reported represent approximately 85% and 45% of the documented macroalgae and plants, 41% and 24% invertebrates, and 62% and 20% of fishes from Catalina Island and the SCB, respectively. Among the marine taxa documented, 39 species either have undergone a geographic range shift or were introduced as the result of human activities, while another 4 species are listed as threatened, endangered or critically endangered. Research findings presented here offer an important baseline of species richness in the California Channel Islands and will help improve the efforts by resource managers and policy makers to conserve and manage similar habitats in the coastal waters off southern California.

Climate change increases cross-species viral transmission risk.

At least 10,000 virus species have the ability to infect humans but, at present, the vast majority are circulating silently in wild mammals1,2. However, changes in climate and land use will lead to opportunities for viral sharing among previously geographically isolated species of wildlife3,4. In some cases, this will facilitate zoonotic spillover-a mechanistic link between global environmental change and disease emergence. Here we simulate potential hotspots of future viral sharing, using a phylogeographical model of the mammal-virus network, and projections of geographical range shifts for 3,139 mammal species under climate-change and land-use scenarios for the year 2070. We predict that species will aggregate in new combinations at high elevations, in biodiversity hotspots, and in areas of high human population density in Asia and Africa, causing the cross-species transmission of their associated viruses an estimated 4,000 times. Owing to their unique dispersal ability, bats account for the majority of novel viral sharing and are likely to share viruses along evolutionary pathways that will facilitate future emergence in humans. Notably, we find that this ecological transition may already be underway, and holding warming under 2 °C within the twenty-first century will not reduce future viral sharing. Our findings highlight an urgent need to pair viral surveillance and discovery efforts with biodiversity surveys tracking the range shifts of species, especially in tropical regions that contain the most zoonoses and are experiencing rapid warming.

Successive extreme climatic events lead to immediate, large-scale, and diverse responses from fish in the Arctic.

The warming trend of the Arctic is punctuated by several record‐breaking warm years with very low sea ice concentrations. The nature and reversibility of marine ecosystem responses to these multiple extreme climatic events (ECEs) are poorly understood. Here, we investigate the ecological signatures of three successive bottom temperature maxima concomitant with surface ECEs between 2004 and 2017 in the Barents Sea across spatial and organizational scales. We observed community‐level redistributions of fish concurrent with ECEs at the scale of the whole Barents Sea. Three groups, characterized by different sets of traits describing their capacity to cope with short‐term perturbations, reacted with different timing and intensity to each ECE. Arctic species co‐occurred more frequently with large predators and incoming boreal taxa during ECEs, potentially affecting food web structures and functional diversity, accelerating the impacts of long‐term climate change. On the species level, responses were highly diversified, with different ECEs impacting different species, and species responses (expansion, geographical shift) varying from one ECE to another, despite the environmental perturbations being similar. Past ECEs impacts, with potential legacy effects, lagged responses, thresholds, and interactions with the underlying warming pressure, could constantly set up new initial conditions that drive the unique ecological signature of each ECE. These results highlight the complexity of ecological reactions to multiple ECEs and give prominence to several sources of process uncertainty in the predictions of climate change impact and risk for ecosystem management. Long‐term monitoring and studies to characterize the vertical extent of each ECE are necessary to statistically link demersal species and environmental spatial–temporal patterns. In the future, regular monitoring will be crucial to detect early signals of change and understand the determinism of ECEs, but we need to adapt our models and management to better integrate risk and stochasticity from the complex impacts of global change.

Realism and Power in Mark Twain's

Realism and Power in Mark Twain's

Riding East—Western Myths, Nostalgia, and the Crossing of Generic Boundaries in Hidalgo (2004)

<i>Riding East</i>—Western Myths, Nostalgia, and the Crossing of Generic Boundaries in <i>Hidalgo</i> (2004)

Landscape Genomics Provides Evidence of Ecotypic Adaptation and a Barrier to Gene Flow at Treeline for the Arctic Foundation Species Eriophorum vaginatum.

Global climate change has resulted in geographic range shifts of flora and fauna at a global scale. Extreme environments, like the Arctic, are seeing some of the most pronounced changes. This region covers 14% of the Earth’s land area, and while many arctic species are widespread, understanding ecotypic variation at the genomic level will be important for elucidating how range shifts will affect ecological processes. Tussock cottongrass (Eriophorum vaginatum L.) is a foundation species of the moist acidic tundra, whose potential decline due to competition from shrubs may affect ecosystem stability in the Arctic. We used double-digest Restriction Site-Associated DNA sequencing to identify genomic variation in 273 individuals of E. vaginatum from 17 sites along a latitudinal gradient in north central Alaska. These sites have been part of 30 + years of ecological research and are inclusive of a region that was part of the Beringian refugium. The data analyses included genomic population structure, demographic models, and genotype by environment association. Genome-wide SNP investigation revealed environmentally associated variation and population structure across the sampled range of E. vaginatum, including a genetic break between populations north and south of treeline. This structure is likely the result of subrefugial isolation, contemporary isolation by resistance, and adaptation. Forty-five candidate loci were identified with genotype-environment association (GEA) analyses, with most identified genes related to abiotic stress. Our results support a hypothesis of limited gene flow based on spatial and environmental factors for E. vaginatum, which in combination with life history traits could limit range expansion of southern ecotypes northward as the tundra warms. This has implications for lower competitive attributes of northern plants of this foundation species likely resulting in changes in ecosystem productivity.

Explaining Geographic Shifts of Chip Making toward East Asia and Market Dynamics in Semiconductor Global Production Networks

Few recent geographic studies have focused on how market dynamics might explain macroregional shifts in industrial production. This article examines the pivoting of semiconductor manufacturing toward East Asia during the 2010s, drawing upon proprietary data sets and interviews with leading semiconductor firms. Building on the existing conceptions of user-producer collaborations in economic geography, I conceptualize the relevance of market dynamics for explaining industrial-geographic change. In particular, I specify how customer intimacy in intermediate markets and demand responsiveness in end markets, as two critical dimensions of market dynamics, create strong demand for new chip-making capacity, and how spatial and relational proximity can strengthen interfirm collaboration and customer intimacy in semiconductor production networks. Empirically, market dynamics prompting massive growth in East Asian chip-making capacity are manifested in new product transition and chip demand from global lead firms in the information and communications technology sector and their manufacturing partners mostly located in East Asia. Demand responsiveness to new lead firms and end markets within East Asia has also induced chip design and new capacity to be colocated in the region. Customer intimacy between chip design firms and their foundry providers has led to massive growth of outsourced wafer fabrication in East Asia. Complementing supply-side explanations, such as state support and technological leveraging, this article’s core findings on demand-led market dynamics in explaining geographic shifts in semiconductor manufacturing contribute not only to the studies of global production networks in high-tech industries but also to the renewed interest among geographers in market dynamics and their consequences for uneven development.

Climate Change Influences on the Potential Distribution of the Sand Fly Phlebotomus sergenti, Vector of Leishmania tropica in Morocco.

Leishmaniases are a vector-borne disease, re-emerging in several regions of the world posing a burden on public health. As other vector-borne diseases, climate change is a crucial factor affecting the evolution of leishmaniasis. In Morocco, anthroponotic cutaneous leishmaniasis (ACL) is widespread geographically as many foci across the country, mainly in central Morocco. The objective of this study is to evaluate the potential impacts of climate change on the distribution of ACL due to Leishmania tropica, and its corresponding vector Phlebotomus sergenti in Morocco. Using Ecological Niche Modeling (ENM) tool, the estimated geographical range shift of L. tropica and P. sergenti by 2050 was projected under two Representative's Concentration's Pathways (RCPs) to be 2.6 and RCP 8.5 respectively. P. sergenti records were obtained from field collections of the laboratory team and previously published entomological observations, while, epidemiological data forL. tropica were obtained from Moroccan Ministry of Health reports. Our models under present-day conditions indicated a probable expansion for L. tropica as well as for its vector in Morocco, P. sergenti. It showed a concentrated distribution in the west-central and northern area of Morocco. Future predictions anticipate expansion into areas not identified as suitable for P. sergenti under present conditions, particularly in northern and southeastern areas of Morocco. L. tropica is also expected to have high expansion in southern areas for the next 30years in Morocco. This indicates that L. tropica and P. sergenti will continue to find suitable climate conditions in the future. A higher abundance of P. sergenti may indeed result in a higher transmission risk of ACL. This information is essential in developing a control plan for ACL in Morocco. However, future investigations on L. tropica reservoirs are needed to confirm our predictions.

The prevalence of diffuse idiopathic skeletal hyperostosis in England and Catalonia from the Roman to the post-medieval periods

ObjectiveEvaluate the prevalence of DISH through time from the Roman to the post-Medieval period in England and Catalonia. Material281 individuals from England and 247 from Catalonia were analyzed. MethodsAdult individuals with at least three well-preserved lower thoracic vertebral bodies were analyzed. DISH was assessed considering the early stages of development. Diachronic and geographical dietary shifts were investigated using reported light isotope data, archaeological reports and historical documentation. ResultsMales and older individuals showed consistently higher prevalence of DISH, however, only the English sample showed a significant difference between males and females in the prevalence of DISH. No significant difference was found in the prevalence of DISH though time (from Roman to post medieval periods) nor across regions (England and Catalonia). ConclusionThe development of DISH is probably influenced by a combination of factors including increasing age and sex. SignificanceThis is the first exhaustive analysis of DISH in ancient Catalan populations and the first that considers the early stages of DISH. LimitationsReduced sample size, particularly in post-medieval samples, as a result of the available excavated samples and the inclusion criteria adopted. Future ResearchInclude rural, religious and high-status samples in the analysis of DISH. Re-assess the prevalence of DISH in post-medieval populations.

Climate-driven variation in biotic interactions provides a narrow and variable window of opportunity for an insect herbivore at its ecological margin.

Climate-driven geographic range shifts have been associated with transitions between dietary specialism and generalism at range margins. The mechanisms underpinning these often transient niche breadth modifications are poorly known, but utilization of novel resources likely depends on phenological synchrony between the consumer and resource. We use a climate-driven range and host shift by the butterfly Aricia agestis to test how climate-driven changes in host phenology and condition affect phenological synchrony, and consider implications for host use. Our data suggest that the perennial plant that was the primary host before range expansion is a more reliable resource than the annual Geraniaceae upon which the butterfly has become specialized in newly colonized parts of its range. In particular, climate-driven phenological variation in the novel host Geranium dissectum generates a narrow and variable 'window of opportunity' for larval productivity in summer. Therefore, although climatic change may allow species to shift hosts and colonise novel environments, specialization on phenologically limited hosts may not persist at ecological margins as climate change continues. We highlight the potential role for phenological (a)synchrony in determining lability of consumer-resource associations at range margins and the importance of considering causes of synchrony in biotic interactions when predicting range shifts. This article is part of the theme issue 'Species' ranges in the face of changing environments (Part II)'.

Mapping spatial distribution and geographic shifts of East African highland banana (Musa spp.) in Uganda.

East African highland banana (Musa acuminata genome group AAA-EA; hereafter referred to as banana) is critical for Uganda’s food supply, hence our aim to map current distribution and to understand changes in banana production areas over the past five decades. We collected banana presence/absence data through an online survey based on high-resolution satellite images and coupled this data with independent covariates as inputs for ensemble machine learning prediction of current banana distribution. We assessed geographic shifts of production areas using spatially explicit differences between the 1958 and 2016 banana distribution maps. The biophysical factors associated with banana spatial distribution and geographic shift were determined using a logistic regression model and classification and regression tree, respectively. Ensemble models were superior (AUC = 0.895; 0.907) compared to their constituent algorithms trained with 12 and 17 covariates, respectively: random forests (AUC = 0.883; 0.901), gradient boosting machines (AUC = 0.878; 0.903), and neural networks (AUC = 0.870; 0.890). The logistic regression model (AUC = 0.879) performance was similar to that for the ensemble model and its constituent algorithms. In 2016, banana cultivation was concentrated in the western (44%) and central (36%) regions, while only a small proportion was in the eastern (18%) and northern (2%) regions. About 60% of increased cultivation since 1958 was in the western region; 50% of decreased cultivation in the eastern region; and 44% of continued cultivation in the central region. Soil organic carbon, soil pH, annual precipitation, slope gradient, bulk density and blue reflectance were associated with increased banana cultivation while precipitation seasonality and mean annual temperature were associated with decreased banana cultivation over the past 50 years. The maps of spatial distribution and geographic shift of banana can support targeting of context-specific intensification options and policy advocacy to avert agriculture driven environmental degradation.