Genus Anodonta Research Articles

The size and shape of parasitic larvae of naiads (Unionidae) are not dependent on female size

The naiads, large freshwater mussels (Unionida), have very long life spans, are large-bodied, and produce thousands to millions of larvae (glochidia) which typically must attach to host fish tissues to metamorphose into a juvenile mussel. Glochidia develop within a female's marsupial gill demibranch, thus their number is restricted by female size. However, larger mussels acquire more energy, which could be invested in either larger-sized glochidia, in a more glochidia, or a combination of both. The high level of host specialization seen in many naiads may constrain glochidial size and shape around a narrow optimum, while naiads that use a wide range of host fishes may be predicted to possess greater plasticity in glochidial morphology. In this paper, we investigated the relationship between maternal body size and progeny body size and shape, aided by modern digital microscopy. We analyzed the between- and within- species variation of glochidia size and shape relative to female size in four widespread species of European naiads: Anodonta anatina, Anodonta cygnea, Unio crassus and Unio tumidus. Whereas the total reproductive output is collinear with female body size, substantial differences between species in glochidia size were found within genus Anodonta, but not genus Unio where glochidial size is remarkably consistent. The glochidial shape, however, differed within both Unio and Anodonta. We interpret this constant within-species glochidial size in Unio as reflecting a constraint imposed by the likelihood of successful transmission onto and off from a narrow range of hosts, whereas their shape seems to be less constrained. The Anodonta species, inhabiting a wide spectrum of habitats and using more than twice the number of fish hosts than Unio spp., have larger glochidia with greater variation in size and shape. Our results suggest that measures of glochidial variability may also serve as an indicator of host specificity in other naiads.

Levels of some Heavy Elements in Tissues and Shells of Aquatic Mollusca (Viviparous and Anodonta) in Baghdad City, Iraq.

Some heavy elements accumulated levels, such as Lead, Zinc, Copper, Iron, Cobalt, Cadmium and Mercury were measured in molluscs that inhabitant the irrigation channel of University of Baghdad in AL- Jadriya districts. The shells and tissues of two Molluscs groups, gastropods genus Viviparous and bivalve genus Anodonta, as well as samples of gastropods eggs and water, were analyzing. The results showed that the highest concentration of Lead, Zinc, Copper, and Iron were recorded in Viviparous shells compared to Anodonta shells, but both Cadmium and Cobalt concentrations were identical in both genera shells, any presence of mercury was not recorded in any of these samples. The tissue samples recorded a rise in Zinc and Copper concentration in Viviparous in comparison with Anodonta, but the Lead, Iron and Cadmium concentrations recorded the highest values in Anodonta. Both elements Cobalt and Mercury concentration showed a similarity in both genera. The gastropods eggs were recorded high concentrations of heavy elements as follows Iron (550.00 ±0.57), Lead (128.00±0.57), Zinc (54. ±000.57), Copper (84.00±0.57), Cadmium (0.300±0.05), Cobalt (0.050±0.01) and Mercury (0.001±0.00) ppm. But water samples showed low concentrations in these elements, Iron (0.200±0.05), Lead (0.033±0.008), Zinc (0.025±0.001), Copper (0.008±0.001), Cadmium (0.004±0.001) and Cobalt (0.001±0.00) ppm.

SCIENTIFIC SUBSTANTIATION OF TECHNOLOGY OF PASTA BASED ON FRESHWATER MUSSELS ENRICHED WITH SELENIUM

The possibility of using dietary selenium-protein additive "Neoselen" for enrichment of pastes based on mussels with organic selenium has been investigated. The formulation of the pastes involved the use of the soft body of the freshwater mmussels of the genus Anodonta. The influence of the introduction of different percentage of the additive "Neoselen" on the organoleptic properties of the developed pastes based on freshwater mussels was investigated. It is found that the addition of additive "Neoselen" even more than 5% does not impair the taste and color of the developed pastes. Moisture content, moisture retention, fat-holding capacity and active acidity of the developed pastes were investigated. The moisture-holding and fat-holding capacity of the developed paste is determined. The difference in the consistency of pastes based on freshwater mussels with different percentage of unpowered additives was investigated by determining the values of plastic viscosity and modulus of elasticity. The regularities of the influence of the additive "Neoselen" on the general chemical and mineral composition of pastes based on freshwater mussels have been established. It is established that the addition of 1%, 3% or 5% in the paste of additive "Neoselen" can enrich it by 7.8, 23.4 and 39 mkg of selenium, respectively. Studies have shown that in the composition of both the control and experimental samples of pastes in the amount of protein, minerals and water content. With the increase of the content of the additive "Neoselen" in the formulation of pastes, the content of protein and minerals increases. The complex of qualitative characteristics of the developed pastes is investigated. The regularities of the influence of the component composition on the organoleptic and physicochemical and functional-technological characteristics of the minced systems based on freshwater mussels and the additive "Neoselen" have been established. It is established that the optimal doses of the use of additive "Neoselen" in the formulation of pastes ranges from 3-5%.

OPTIMIZATION OF THE RECIPES OF FORCEMEAT PRODUCTS ON THE BASIS OF PROCESSED FRESHWATER MUSSELS

This article is devoted to the optimization of the formulations of mincemeat products (cutlets) based on the semi-finished product from the freshwater mussel of the genus Anodonta. Recipe of this semi-finished product that can be introduced into the composition of different groups of dishes and culinary products has been developed. The article presents the model developed of optimisation of the recipe composition of polycomponent systems according to the optimum daily consumption of protein, fats and carbohydrates, with the classical cutlet technology as an example. In the course of the research, a universal model of an orthogonal central composite design to optimize forcemeat products was developed based on the criterion of a balance of the basic nutrients. The orthogonal central composite design is described in detail with four (n) factors of the optimization of the formulations of forcemeat products, and the homogeneity of the dispersion is confirmed, using Cochran’s C test at the significance level of x (0.05). The significance of the statistical model and the reliability of the regression equation were determined with an F-test. An organoleptic evaluation of the composition of each formulation of forcemeat products on the basis of processed freshwater mussels was made during the experiment by analytical methods – the qualitative method and the developed profile analysis method according to a point scale. The obtained results were presented in the form of a 3D model constructed using the least-squares smoothing method. After the graphic data obtained and the results of the direct measurements had been studied and the regression equation interpreted, we determined that the optimum composition of forcemeat products based on the processed freshwater mussel was the sample having the ratio of proteins, fats, and carbohydrates 1:1.03:4.18, which is the closest to the optimum ratio (1:1:4), and the organoleptic rating 14.25. Besides, basing on formulation 21 developed by us, we have determined the content of minerals, in particular Ca, P, Mg, Fe, I2, in one portion.

Parasites of unionid molluscs (Bivalvia, Unionidae) and their effect on the body of molluscs

Among the molluscs of the family Unionidae extensivity of infestation by the helminth Aspidogaster conchicola (Trematoda, Aspidogastridae) is the highest in Unio tumidus and Anodonta anatina, and the lowest – in U. pictorum. The mites of the genus Unionicola (Arachnida, Unionicolidae) occur more often in species of the genus Anodonta and Pseudanodonta complanata than in species of Unio. The larvae of trematodes Bucephalus polymorphus (Trematoda, Bucephalidae) are more often identified in species of the genus Anodonta. The intensity of invasion of molluscs by the helminth A. conchicola was 1.0–5.6 ind./ind. (Unio – 1.0–3.3, Pseudanodonta – 3.0–5.6, Anodonta – 1.3–4.0 ind.), by the water mites Unionicola – 1–69 ind./ind. (Unio, Pseudanodonta – 1–11, Anodonta – 1–69). Due to the influence of aspidogastreans, the cytoplasmic vacuolization and hypertrophy of the cells of the pericardial epithelium and the layer of connective tissue was observed, which leads to a shrinkage of the upper side of the pericardium. Often, there was a nuclear pyknosis and, with deeper violations, their karyorrhexis and karyolysis. In the layer of connective tissue of pericardium of A. anatina encapsulated larvae of aspidogastereans were found. An increase in the cardiac index was observed in molluscs infested by aspidogastreans: the change in the index was the smallest in U. crassus (at 11.5%) and the largest in U. tumidus (at 54.1–61.0%). Smaller cardiac indexes are typical for molluscs with a lower intensity of infestation by aspidogastreans. Moderate intensity of infestation by this helminth (6–10 ind./ind.) caused an increase in the heart rate in molluscs (18.6–29.6%), high intensity (>10 ind./ind.) caused the decreasing of this indicator (14.5–24.0%). At low intensity of the mite (up to 20 individuals) and invasion of the trematode B. polymorphus (minor infections; part of the reproductive glands, populated by parasites, is less than 50%) the acceleration of ciliary beating and increasing of the duration of ciliary beating of the ciliated epithelium (1.4–2.6 times) were observed in species Anodonta and U. pictorum, at high intensity of invasion the inhibition of beating and reduction of the duration of ciliary beating of the ciliated epithelium in these species (45.9–57.4%) was observed. In the case of the general pathological process in the body of molluscs , the influence of parasites can cause the elimination of individuals with high intensity of infestation , which affects the absolute number and population density of molluscs.

Investigation of changes of the soft body of freshwater mussels under influence of thermal processing in the technology of boiled-frozen semi-finished product

The water holding capacity and pH of raw cooled bivalve freshwater genus Anodonta mussels in the north of Ukraine are determined. During the research it is established that the soft body of freshwater mussels has low indicators of water holding capacity. Therefore, it is advisable to use it independently in the technology of minced products. But with the use of a water-holding agent (fiber) – this is possible from the point of view of further research. According to above-mentioned, research is aimed at developing a semi-finished product, in its technology did not contain the grinding process. The technology of cooked-frozen semi-finished product includes the following stages (cooling of freshly-caught raw materials, preparation of raw materials for use in technological process, thermal processing, cooling, freezing, storage). To determine the optimal terms of thermal processing, a number of experiments are carried out. Investigation of structural changes is determined by penetration. This method allows to get a semi-finished product with a delicate and juicy consistency. To confirm this method, experiments are conducted to determine the loss of mass and water in the soft body of mussels under the influence of different times of thermal processing. Periods of thermal processing are proved in terms of preserving nutritional value. The change in the amount of protein in different periods of thermal processing is determined. This technology is simple in its technological essence and is an effective way of processing a huge freshwater source of raw materials containing a high-grade protein. Implementation of this technology will expand the range of products made from hydrobionts.

Research of fatty acid and mineral composition of soft body of freshwater bivalves (genus Anodonta) in the northern Ukraine

The fatty acid and mineral composition of the freshwater bivalves (genus Anodonta) in the north of Ukraine are determined for the first time and compared with the investigated data on the type of shellfish of genus Mytilus (Mytilus galloprovincialis specie). It was proved that lipids of freshwater aquatic are presented by valuable polyunsaturated fatty acids of family ⱷ-3 and ⱷ-6. Freshwater bivalves of genus Anodonta are particularly rich in eicosapentaenoic, docosahexaenoic , linoleic, linolenic, arachidonic and oleic fatty acids, which can’t be synthesized in humans. Also a study of iodine and heavy metals such as cadmium and lead was conducted for the soft body of freshwater bivalves of genus Anodonta and genus Mytilus (Mytilus galloprovincialis specie). It was revealed that the amount of iodine contained in a soft body of bivalves of genus Anodonta provides almost half the daily requirement of this element and contained amount of salts of heavy metals doesn’t exceed the maximum permissible concentrations for aquatic organisms. Amount of calcium and phosphorus in the soft body of bivalves of genus Anodonta in the obtained ash in times greater than their number in the body of the soft marine counterparts, which provides a better absorption of iodine in the body because these elements are its synergists. The possibility of using freshwater bivalves of genus Anodonta as a complete and biologically healthy food was proved. This product provides the body with vital essential fatty acids, micro and macro elements and helps the prevention of iodine deficiency disorders.

Investigation of amino acid structure of proteins of freshwater bivalve mussels from the genus anodonta of the northern Ukraine

Mussels of the genus Anodonta of the northern Ukraine are one of poorly caught, but promising objects of river fishery in food and technology terms. The reason of poor catch of freshwater mussels is the lack of industrial technologies for use in food processing. The main objective of the research of freshwater bivalve mussels of the genus Anodonta of the northern Ukraine is to make sure that they contain complete protein, all essential amino acids, and their balanced content. The data obtained were compared with the mussels of the genus Mytilus species Mytilus galloprovincialis and the ideal protein on the scale of FAO/WHO. For the first time, the physicochemical composition of freshwater bivalve mussels of the genus Anodonta of the northern Ukraine was defined. For proteins of two types of the samples, the amino acid structure of soft flesh was determined and the amino acid score of each essential amino acid, followed by their comparison was calculated. To reduce the error of the research, the methods of mathematical modeling and analysis of the results were used. The utility coefficient, potential biological value for mussels of the genus Anodonta and mussels of the genus Mytilus were determined. It was proved that the soft flesh of freshwater mussels of the genus Anodonta has a high nutritional and biological value by the content of protein and essential amino acids. Research of the total content of the flesh after completion of growing period that is 10 months in mussels of the genus Anodonta and Mytilus showed that freshwater mussels prevail over the marine analog by 3.2 times, due to the greater growing capacity and the presence of the foot in mussels of the genus Anodonta. Therefore, they are the best raw material for cultivation and use in food technology, and further researches are highly promising.

Complete maternal mitochondrial genome of freshwater mussel Anodonta lucida (Bivalvia: Unionidae: Anodontinae)

The taxonomy of genus Anodonta is rather ambiguous, as it has great variation on the shell shape. Anodonta lucida is an endemic species of freshwater mussel in China, characterized by shining epidermis. The complete maternal mitochondrial genome of freshwater mussel A. lucida was first determined (GenBank accession no. KF667529). The genome is 16,285 bp long with an AT content of 64.02%. All the 37 typical animal mitochondrial genes are found, including 13 protein-coding genes, 22 tRNA genes, and 2 rRNA genes. The genome also contains 24 unassigned regions, ranking from 1 to 830 bp in length, the largest of which is the putative control region (CR). The base composition of the genome is A (36.32%), G (13.01%), T (27.70%) and C (22.98%). Gene order is identical to other species of Unionidae except Gonideinae.

Function of the crystalline style and first detection of laminarinase activity in freshwater mussels of the genus Anodonta

Knowledge of the digestive physiology of molluscs is essential for understanding their ecological niches, as well as for their conservation and aquaculture. Freshwater mussels are primarily filter feeders and the complex mechanism of filtration has been studied intensively (Ward et al., 1998; Urrutia et al., 2001; Garrido et al., 2012). However, less is known concerning the physiological mechanisms following ingestion, in particular how food particles are processed in the digestive tract. In bivalves, energy is mostly stored in the form of glycogen, which accounts for 5–14% of the dry weight in Anodonta cygnea (Gade & Wilps, 1975). For the digestion of various carbohydrates, the crystalline style, a transparent rod composed in part of glycoside hydrolases, is known to be a key component of digestion in the stomach of many snails and marine bivalves. Previous studies (e.g. Alyakrinskaya, 2001) have shown the ability of crystalline style to break down starch in Pseudanodonta complanata and cellulose in Mytilus. Moreover, it has been suggested that crystalline style material not only releases digestive enzymes, but also provides an optimal digestion milieu by buffering ambient pH. Its physiological characteristics, including pH and dissolution, have been described by Hameed (1985) and Warren (1987). This study evaluates the ability of crystalline styles excised from Anodonta anatina to break down different carbohydrate sources and tests the buffering capacity of style material for providing optimal conditions for digestion.

Reproductive Biology ofAnodonta californiensis, Gonidea angulata,andMargaritifera falcata(Bivalvia: Unionoida) in the Middle Fork John Day River, Oregon

The reproductive biology of the California floater (Anodonta californiensis), western ridged mussel (Gonidea angulata) and western pearlshell (Margaritifera falcata) was studied in the Middle Fork John Day River from May 2005 to July 2011. Anodonta californiensis was gravid from early May to late July. Mature A. californiensis glochidia were hooked, rust-colored, sub-triangulate, averaged 276 µm in length, and were similar in size to other glochidia of the genus Anodonta. Gravid G. angulata were found only in June. Mature G. angulata glochidia were hookless, white, sub-round, and averaged 171 µm in length, similar to the oval pigtoe (Pleurobema pyriforme). Margaritifera falcata were gravid in early May. Mature M. falcata glochidia were hookless, white, sub-round, and averaged 55 µm in length, a size and shape similar to the spectacle case (Cumberlandia monodonta). Anodonta californiensis glochidia were found attached to six wild-caught fish species from early June to late July. In contrast, G. angulata glochidia were found attached only to wild-caught sculpin (Cottus sp.) in late July. No M. falcata glochidia were observed on fish in the field. In laboratory experiments, speckled dace (Rhinichthys osculus) was a confirmed primary host and the longnose dace (R. cataractae), and margined sculpin (Cottus marginatus) served as unconfirmed primary hosts for A. californiensis. Margined and shorthead sculpin (C. confusus) were identified as unconfirmed primary hosts for G. angulata.

Should ecological factors affect the evolution of age at maturity in freshwater clams?

We studied the evolution of age at maturity in freshwater clams of the genus Anodonta in relation to their ecology. We analysed an age-structured density-dependent population dynamics model, which we developed for freshwater clams, using several different options for density dependence. As evolutionary optimality criteria we applied both the maximization of a fitness measure (either intrinsic rate of increase or expected lifetime fecundity) and the concept of evolutionarily stable strategies (ESSs). All three evolutionary criteria yielded estimates which were too high for the optimal age at maturity in a deterministic model with a constant survival rate. The predictions are improved when size-selective predation is included in the model. Mature clams also face a risk of infection by castrating parasites, which would select for delayed maturity. Variable newborn survival selects for earlier reproduction, though the observed levels of stochasticity probably have a negligible effect.

Das Dispersionsmuster von Teichmuscheln (Anodonta) im Z�richsee

The dispersion pattern of mussels belonging to the genus Anodonta has been studied in a shallow area of Lake Zurich. Starting in July 1970, mussels were counted six times at monthly intervals on a grid of 800 square units of 0.5 m2 each. The mean (mussels per m2) varied between months from 1.3 (in July and December) to 2.2 (in November). Different parts of the grid contained unequal numbers of mussels, which is explained by nonhomogeneousness of the substratum.The observed frequency distribution of number of mussels per unit showed a close fit to an negative binomial distribution. For further interpretation the index of dispersion as proposed by Morisita (1959) was computed, first using single units and thereafter combinations of 2, 4, ... units. From the slopes of the lines obtained (Fig. 3) it is concluded that the mussels form small aggregations, within which their distribution is random. Aggregation is most pronounced in July, during a season when male mussels are known to release their sperm.

Observations on the Life History and Taxonomic Relationships of the Trematode Aspidogaster conchicola

In 1827, von Baer described a trematode which he named Aspidogaster conchicola. The original material was from a fresh-water mussel of the genus Anodonta, from Prussia. This same species has long been known to occur in the pericardial and renal cavities of North American UNIONIDAE, but most of the studies carried on by American investigators have dealt chiefly with morphology and distribution of the species. Kelly (1899) carried on extensive studies of the host relationships of this species in the Illinois River and Stunkard (1917) made a study of the general morphology which confirms and adds somewhat to the earlier observations by Stafford (1896). There has been but fragmentary information concerning the development of this parasite of the UNIONIDAE. Stafford (1896), Faust and Tang (1936), and others have made the suggestion that the life cycle is fundamentally direct, i.e., that the young worm develops directly into an adult, either in the same host individual which shelters the mature worm, or in another individual of the same or of a different species. The systematic position of Aspidogaster has long been in doubt. Whether it belongs in MONOGENEA, DIGENEA, or an intermediate group has been a controversial question. It is the object of this paper to trace the life cycle of this worm and to review critically the evidence as to its systematic position. In the present study, the process of hatching of the eggs of Aspidogaster has been observed and, in natural infections, series of immature stages have been found representing fairly complete developmental stages all within the same host species. Aspidogaster conchicola therefore differs from the general pattern of host-parasite relationship among trematodes in that the entire life cycle occurs within an invertebrate host. UNIONIDAE from the Sangamon River near Mahomet, Illinois; from the Salt Fork, at Homer Park, Illinois; and from the Wabash River at West York, Illinois, are the hosts of the Aspidogaster used in this study. A detailed list of the host species will be presented in another paper dealing more directly with relationships to the host.