Gender Role Orientation Research Articles

The Relations Among Feminist Identity Development, Gender-Role Orientation, and Psychological Well-Being in Women

This study examined relations between feminist identity development, gender-role orientation, and psychological well-being in 244 women of varying ages and backgrounds. As hypothesized, both feminist identity development and gender-role orientation contributed independently to the explanation of variance in psychological well-being. Instrumentality, expressiveness, and a more developed feminist identity were all related positively to psychological well-being. In addition, instrumentality and a more developed feminist identity were correlated positively. Implications of these findings as well as limitations and future directions are discussed.

Sex, gender role orientation, gender role attitudes and suicidal thoughts in three generations

Suicide and other suicidal behaviours are markedly (though differently) patterned by gender. The increase in young male suicide rates in many countries has heightened interest in whether suicidal behaviours and ideation (thoughts) are related to masculinity. Relatively little research has explored the relationship between gender role attitudes and orientation and suicidal behaviours and ideation. Most research in this area has been conducted with young people. We investigated whether gender role orientation (masculinity and femininity scores) and gender role attitudes were related to the reporting of serious suicidal thoughts in three generations (early adulthood, and early and late middle age) in a community sample. Subjects (653 men and women aged around 23 years, 754 aged around 43 years, 722 aged around 63 years) completed home interviews with nurses as part of an ongoing longitudinal community-based study of social factors and health. These included measures of suicidal ideation (thoughts), attitudes to traditional gender roles, and a validated measure of gender role orientation (masculinity and femininity scores). The prevalence of serious suicidal thoughts was higher in early adulthood (10% men, 15% women) than in early (4% men, 8% women) and late (6% men, 5% women) middle age. In early adulthood only sex was significantly related to suicidal thoughts, with women at higher risk (adjusted OR 1.74, 95% CI 1.01-3.00). In early middle age masculinity scores were negatively related to suicidal thoughts (adjusted OR for each unit increase in score 0.65: 95% CI 0.46-0.93), and more traditional views on gender roles were positively associated with suicidal thoughts (adjusted OR 1.48: 95% CI 1.07-2.04). In late middle age trends were in the same direction as in early middle age, but were not statistically significant. Femininity scores were unrelated to serious suicidal thoughts at any age. The high rates of suicidal thoughts amongst men and women in early adulthood point to the importance of understanding mental health problems at this age. The results raise a number of questions and suggest that suicide researchers should pay more attention to gender roles and attitudes in older adults.

Gender Role Orientation and Anxiety Symptoms Among African American Adolescents

The present study evaluated gender role theory as an explanation for the observed gender differences in anxiety symptoms among adolescents. Specifically, the relation between gender, gender role orientation (i.e., masculinity and femininity), self-esteem, and anxiety symptoms was examined in a community sample of 114 African Americans aged 14 to 19 (mean age 15.77; 57 girls). Results revealed that masculinity was negatively associated with anxiety symptoms whereas femininity was positively associated with anxiety symptoms. Gender role orientation accounted for unique variance in anxiety scores above biological gender and self-esteem, and self-esteem moderated the relation between femininity (but not masculinity) and overall anxiety symptoms. Consistent with research on children and Caucasians, findings supported gender role theory as a partial explanation for the observed gender disparity in anxiety symptoms among African American adolescents.

Why Homosexuality is a Risk Factor for Eating Disorders in Males

There is a typical overrepresentation of homosexual males in clinical eating disorder samples. The present study investigated the role of gender role orientation, peer pressure, self-esteem, and body dissatisfaction in relation to eating disorder symptoms among a sample of homosexual men and a sample of heterosexual men. The results show that most variables were highly interrelated. However, using multivariate regression analyses it was found that body dissatisfaction, and not self-esteem, was the dominant predictor of eating disorder symptoms. For both heterosexual and homosexual men, a higher level of body dissatisfaction was related to higher Body Mass Index (BMI), more peer pressure, and lower masculinity scores. In addition, an interaction of sexual orientation and peer pressure was found: the relationship between peer pressure and body dissatisfaction was substantially more pronounced among homosexual men. Finally, associations between eating disorder symptoms on the one hand and sexual orientation, gender role orientation and peer pressure on the other hand, became non-significant when taking body dissatisfaction into account. The results show the central role of body dissatisfaction in the relationship between homosexuality and eating disorder symptoms, as well as the contribution of peer pressure. Directions for future research are discussed.

Black Adolescent Girls: Do Gender Role and Racial Identity: Impact Their Self-Esteem?

This study was designed to explore Black adolescent girls' gender roles, racial identity, and self-esteem. These variables have not been examined together in a study of Black girls, yet studies of girls from other racial/cultural groups have demonstrated significant relationships. This type of exploration is important because Black girls do not experience the same declines in self-esteem as girls from other racial/cultural groups. Gender role orientation and racial identity have been put forth as possible explanations for Black girls' bolstered levels of self-esteem. Results indicated that Black girls with androgynous and masculine characteristics reported high levels of self-esteem. The results also indicated that Black girls with internally defined Black racial identity attitudes reported high levels of domain-specific self-esteem. In addition, androgyny was associated with high scores on internalization (Black racial identity).

Gender Role Orientation and Attitude toward Christianity: A Study among Older Men and Women in the United Kingdom

A sample of 496 older men and women in England, mainly in their sixties and seventies, completed the Bem Sex Role Inventory together with the Francis Scale of Attitude toward Christianity. The data demonstrated that psychological femininity is key to individual differences in religiosity (as assessed by attitude toward Christianity) within the sexes and that, after taking gender role orientation into account, biological sex conveyed no additional predictive power in respect of individual differences in religiosity (as assessed by attitude toward Christianity). This finding is explained in terms of Eysenck's biologically-based dimensional model of personality which construes psychological masculinity and femininity as one of the seven constituent components of one of the three major dimensions of personality (psychoticism). This psychologically-based theory renders redundant sociologically-based socialization theories designed to account for differences in religiosity between the sexes.

Gender role orientations and alcohol use among Moscow and Toronto adults

Using self-report data from representative community samples of Moscow and Toronto adults, we examine the effects of sex, masculinity, and femininity on alcohol use. Consistent with prior research, our results show that men in Moscow and Toronto drink significantly more than women; women in both samples tend more toward conventional femininity than men; and masculinity levels are greater among Toronto men relative to Toronto women. Moscow men and women, however, show comparable masculinity levels. Neither masculinity nor femininity explains the sex gap in alcohol use in either sample. However, sex- and sample-specific effects are identified. In Toronto, femininity is associated with higher alcohol use among women. In Moscow, masculinity is associated with lower use among men and higher use among women. The findings provide preliminary support for our assertion that the characteristics of national contexts, such as drinking norms and “Soviet-style socialism” [Cockerham, Snead, & Dewaal (2002). Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 43, 42–55] interact with traditional gender role orientations to influence alcohol use patterns. We suggest that a movement toward culturally sensitive policies that consider sex-specific social expectations and responses may contribute to improved health outcomes across nations.

The Impact of Fathers' Absence on African American Adolescents' Gender Role Development

Gender role development was assessed in 52 father-absent and 54 father-present African American adolescents. Father-present boys, especially those from lower-income backgrounds, had higher perceptions of their masculinity than did father-absent boys. Lower income father-absent girls perceived themselves to be higher in masculinity than did all other girls. Consequently, father-present adolescents tended to have more traditional gender role orientations than did those in father-absent homes. It is argued that mothers' and fathers' different socializing strategies balance out in two-parent homes. However, in father-absent homes, mothers' tendency to rely on and pressure their daughters fosters relatively more masculine girls, whereas a lack of father socialization fosters less masculine boys. Implications for theory and future research are also discussed.

The Relation Between Gender Role Orientation and Fear and Anxiety in Nonclinic-Referred Children

This study examined the relation between gender role orientation and fear and anxiety in a sample of nonclinic-referred children (N = 209) ages 10 to 13 years. Children and their parents completed questionnaires assessing children's gender role orientation, toy and activity preferences, and fear and anxiety. Results generally indicated that femininity and a preference for girls' toys and activities were positively associated with fear and anxiety, whereas masculinity and a preference for boys' toys and activities were negatively related to these emotions. Furthermore, gender role orientation accounted for more of the variance in fear and anxiety scores than the child's sex.

Gender Identity Construction and Sexual Orientation in Sexually Abused Males

Male survivors of sexual abuse must struggle with confused emotions, including depression and anger. They react in a different way than females, however, in that the sexual abuse forces men to face issues of gender-role identity and sexual orientation. These are questions at the level of “Who am I?” and “What is the meaning of my life?” Such questions have always been very complex for men but are especially poignant for male survivors of sexual abuse. The authors use their clinical experience and study of gender identity to address the topic, which psychotherapists sometimes find difficult to make part of their work with men. The topic is addressed at four levels: the construction of male gender role identity, sexuality in a setting of hegemonic masculinity, sexual orientation, and psychotherapy with male survivors of sexual abuse.

The Interaction of Country of Origin, Acculturation, and Gender Role Ideology on Wife Abuse*

Objective. Using data from the Mexican American Prevalence and Services Survey (Vega et al., 1998), this research tests whether the impact of acculturation and gender role ideology on wife abuse depends on country of origin.Methods. Two separate logistic regressions, one for U.S.‐born Latinas and one for Mexican‐born Latinas, are compared to test the impact of the interaction of place of origin with the other variables.Results. Our findings support earlier research indicating that power dynamics within a relationship impact the likelihood of a wife reporting she has experienced abuse. Significant differences in the influence of independent variables are found when comparing U.S.‐ and Mexican‐born respondents. In particular, variables related to family power dynamics operate differently. Gender role beliefs, however, have an independent influence for both groups after controlling for sociodemographic factors and power dynamics. Women with more traditional orientations are less likely to report abuse.Conclusions. Because the impact of gender role ideology is significant and in the same direction for both those born in the United States and those born in Mexico, it is unlikely that the traditional familism and gender role orientations reported among the Mexican born afford them greater protection against abuse.

Gender Role Orientation in Turkish Female Athletes and Non-Athletes

The purpose of this study was to compare gender role orientation and classification of elite female athletes aged between 18 to 30 years with age-matched female non-athletes in Turkey. Additionally, gender role differences with regard to types of sport in elite female athletes were examined. In this study 306 elite female athletes (Mage = 22.17 ± 2.51) and 264 female non-athletes (Mage = 21.34 ± 3.14) were participants of this study. Female athletes were selected from feminine sports; ballet dancing, aerobic dance, swimming, ice skating, tennis, volleyball (n = 70), from masculine sports; basketball, handball, soccer, wrestling, weight lifting, taekwando, karate, judo (n = 127), and from gender-neutral sports; track and field, shot putting and javelin throwing (n = 109). The Bern Sex Role Inventory was administered to assess the gender role orientations of participants. Multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) showed that there were significant differences in gender role orientation between elite female athletes from different types of sport and female non-athletes (Hotelling’s T2 = 0.145; F(6,112) = 13.63; p<.01). In a follow-up univariate analysis, a significant difference in masculinity (F(3,569) = 26.07; p<.01) scores between female athletes from different types of sport and female non-athletes were observed. In addition, a chi square analysis showed a significant difference in gender role classifications between elite female athletes from different types of sport and female non-athletes (X2 = 68.22; p<. 01). Based on these findings it was concluded that there were significant differences in gender role orientations between Turkish elite female athletes and nonathletes.

Gender Role Orientation of Athletes and Nonathletes in a Patriarchal Society: A Study in Turkey

The purpose of this study was to compare the gender role orientation and gender role classification of female and male athletes to those of their nonathlete counterparts. A total of 463 athletes and 378 nonathletes completed the Bem Sex Role Inventory. The findings indicated that athletes score higher on the masculinity and femininity subscales than do nonathletes. Men had higher scores on masculinity than did women, whereas women had higher scores on femininity than did men. In addition, both men and women athletes were mostly classified in the androgynous category. These findings are discussed in relation to the competitive sport environment and Turkish society.

Social Role Theory and the Perceived Gender Role Orientation of Athletes

In this research we examined the influence of athletic roles upon the perceived gender role orientations of male and female athletes. Participants were 148 students who read a bogus newspaper article that described either a male or female athlete who had successfully competed in an athletic event. The type of sport (football, basketball, and cheerleading) was manipulated. Female football players and basketball players were perceived as higher in agency than female cheerleaders. Male cheerleaders were perceived as higher in communality than male football players and male basketball players. Participants made external attributions concerning the motivations of athletes who competed in gender traditional sports. They made internal attributions concerning the motivations of athletes who competed in gender nontraditional sports. These findings are examined in relation to social role theory.

Eating disorder symptomatology and gender role orientation

The aim of the current study was to investigate associations between gender role orientation and eating pathology in a sample of females with eating disorders (ED). Sixty-eight women with anorexia nervosa and 123 women with bulimia nervosa completed the Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI), the Eating Disorders Inventory, and the Sexual Anxiety subscale of the Anorexia Nervosa Inventory for Self-Rating. All three subscales of the BSRI--femininity, masculinity, and social desirability--correlated negatively with self-reported ED behavior and attitudes. Individuals with high levels of androgyny (i.e., those scoring high on femininity and masculinity) reported lower levels of ED symptomatology compared with undifferentiated individuals (i.e., those scoring low on femininity and masculinity), who showed higher levels of ED symptoms. Femininity and masculinity, although independent traits, should not be considered isolated from each other in the context of ED. In females with ED, androgyny appears to be associated with lower levels of ED symptoms. Self-esteem may play a mediating role in this association.

The Influence of Children on Purchases: The Development of Measures for Gender Role Orientation and Shopping Savvy

The changing composition of the family, changes in gender role orientation and individual differences in marketing or shopping 'savvy' seem likely to affect the degree of influence of different family members in various stages of a purchase. This paper describes the key planning and exploratory stages of a collaborative academic-practitioner project designed to identify the determinants of a child's relative influence within a family in relation to purchase decisions. Specifically, the paper describes the planning and exploratory stages involved in construct definitions, choice of measures (ready-made or purpose-built) and their screening and development in consultation with a sample of adults and children and a team of practitioners, academics and teachers.

Effects of gender and sex role orientation on help-seeking attitudes

This study investigated the effects of gender and sex role orientation (masculinity and femininity) on attitudes toward seeking professional psychological help in a sample of 163 student trainee teachers (52 males and 111 females) in Singapore. The mean age of students was 25.39 years (SD = 3.80). ANOVAs revealed statistically significant main effects for gender and femininity on attitudes toward help-seeking. Specifically, females were reported to have more positive overall attitudes toward professional help-seeking and were more willing to recognize a personal need for professional help compared to males. Femininity significantly influenced students’ level of stigma tolerance. These findings suggest that both gender and sex role orientation play an independent role in influencing help-seeking attitudes. In addition, these variables appear to have a differential impact on different aspects of helpseeking.

The impact of self-construals on social anxiety: a gender-specific interaction

Ninety-seven American-born, Caucasian participants completed self-report questionnaires in a study examining the impact of gender, gender role orientation and independent and interdependent self-construals upon social anxiety. Three significant findings emerged: gender membership did not predict social anxiety severity, identification with a traditionally masculine gender role orientation decreased risk for social anxiety, and self-construals predicted levels of social anxiety differentially in men and women. In men, interdependence and independence predicted levels of social anxiety positively and negatively, respectively, while these patterns of association were reversed in women. Implications of the results are discussed in terms of the role of gender-specific cultural expectations and self-discrepancies in social anxiety.

The scope of sexual victimization in Germany.

This study examined the sexual victimization of 309 female students in Germany. The results indicate that the majority of the subjects have been victims of minor offenses and that a minority of subjects was severely victimized. As to the relation of victim and perpetrator, the milder offenses are more likely to be committed by strangers. In contrast, the most serious offenses are more likely to be committed by perpetrators with a close relation to the victim. It was also investigated whether the perception of being victimized correlates with the subjects' gender-role orientation and their health problems.

Gender Role Orientation and Performance on Stereotypically Feminine and Masculine Cognitive Tasks

Nash (1979) argued that people tend to perform better on cognitive tasks when their gender-related self-concept is consistent with the stereotyping of the tasks. In order to evaluate Nash's hypothesis, participants were administered the S&M Mental Rotation Task, the Controlled Word Association Test, and the Bem (1974) Sex Role Inventory (BSRI). In men gender role orientation was significantly related to performance on the verbal task, with the critical factor being androgyny. When femininity and masculinity were assessed individually, femininity was found to be significantly related to the verbal task in men only. In women there was no significant variability across the gender role types in relation to performance on either task. These findings suggest that the importance of gender is dependent on the task and participants' sex. Nash's hypothesis was not supported for the mental rotation task.