Gender Role Orientation Research Articles

Sex Variations in Youth Anxiety Symptoms: Effects of Pubertal Development and Gender Role Orientation

This study evaluated whether pubertal development and gender role orientation (i.e., masculinity and femininity) can partially explain sex variations in youth anxiety symptoms among clinic-referred anxious youth (N = 175; ages 9–13 years; 74% Hispanic; 48% female). Using youth and parent ratings of youth anxiety symptoms, structural equation modeling results indicated that youth who reported being more advanced in their pubertal development reported high levels of femininity and anxiety symptoms. Youth who reported high levels of masculinity had low levels of anxiety symptoms as reported by both youths and parents. The estimated effects of pubertal development, femininity, and masculinity on youth and parent ratings of youth anxiety symptoms were not significantly moderated by biological sex. Pubertal development and gender role orientation appear to be important in explaining levels of youth anxiety symptoms among clinic-referred anxious youth.

Pregnancy and body image in Poland: Gender roles and self-esteem during the third trimester

Objectives: The study has two main objectives: (1) assessment of the perception of body image among a sample of women in their third trimester of pregnancy; and (2) examination of the relationship between body image, gender role orientation, gender role stress and self-esteem. Background: Body image has received much attention in the psychological literature, but little work has been conducted with pregnant women or outside of the United States. Research suggests that women experience both anxieties and positive emotions about their body image during pregnancy, which might be associated with their personal characteristics. Methods: 100 pregnant women were approached in seven different ‘Schools of Birth’ in Poland. Participants completed questionnaires assessing body image, feminine gender role stress, psychological masculinity–femininity and self-esteem during their third trimester of pregnancy. Results: Pregnant Polish women generally have a positive body image, which is positively associated with self-esteem. Feminine gender role stress was related to a negative body image, masculinity and androgyny positively correlated with body image. Structural equation modelling suggests that body image is a mediator between gender factors and self-esteem. Conclusion: Our findings underline the multidimensional nature of the body image and the importance of mediating factors in predicting the psychological outcomes of pregnancy.

Gender-Role Conflict and Gender-Role Orientation in a Sample of Gay Men

ABSTRACT This exploratory study was designed to examine the relationship between gender role dimensions derived from the Bem Sex-Role Inventory (BSRI) and the 4 dimensions of gender role conflict represented on the Gender Role Conflict Scale (GRCS) using a sample (N = 400) composed of exclusively gay men. Results from regression of 3 BSRI scores (femininity, social masculinity, personal masculinity) on the 4 subscale scores of the GRCS indicated that gender role conflict was most strongly and positively associated with the negative aspect of masculinity (social masculinity), accounting for about 11% of variability in social masculinity scores. In particular, the success–power–competition dimension of the GRCS was the major predictor of social masculinity in gay men. Gender role conflict was also strongly but negatively associated with femininity, accounting for approximately 10% of the variance in femininity scores among the men in the sample. Implications and recommendations for further studies are discussed.

ETHNIC IDENTITY AND SUBSTANCE USE AMONG AFRICAN AMERICAN WOMEN: THE MEDIATING INFLUENCE OF GENDER ROLES.

Ethnic identity is protective against substance use and other problem behaviors; however, some studies have implicated ethnic identity as a contributor to substance use. We hypothesized that the relationship between ethnic identity and substance use would be fully mediated by gender role orientation. Participants included 562 African American women in the south-eastern region of the United States. Participants completed the Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure (MEIM) and the Personal Attributes Questionnaire and reported past 30-day drug use. We employed structural equation modeling. The composite model displayed acceptable global Rt. Ethnic Identity predicted African American females' identification with male gender roles. Identification with male gender roles was positively linked to perceptions of drug risk and past 30-day drug use. Perceptions of drug risk was negatively linked to past 30-day drug use. Identification with masculine gender roles as a significant drug risk factor suggests some implications for prevention programming.

Daily Hassles and African American Adolescent Females’ Psychological Functioning: Direct and Interactive Associations with Gender Role Orientation

Given that stressors may accumulate across the life span, the extent to which daily hassles are associated with African American females’ psychological functioning during the adolescent years remains an important question. Understanding the potential impact of daily hassles is important due to indications that African American women report greater daily hassles and have higher incidence rates of stress-related disorders. The current study examines the relationship between daily hassles and psychological functioning (e.g., depression and anxiety symptoms) among 103 U.S. African American adolescent females (M = 15.50; SD = 1.70) residing in a moderately-sized Midwestern city. Additionally, this investigation explores gender role orientation as a moderator of this relationship. Results indicated that increased daily hassles were associated with greater depressive and anxiety symptoms. Also, this investigation provides some support for the direct and moderating role of gender role orientation. A greater feminine or androgynous role orientation was associated with fewer depressive and anxiety symptoms. In addition, although not directly associated, this investigation indicated that a masculine role orientation moderated the association between daily hassles and girls’ psychological outcomes. Specifically, among African American adolescent females with a greater masculine role orientation, increased daily hassles were associated with reduced psychological functioning (e.g., greater depressive and anxiety symptoms). Neither feminine nor androgynous role orientation, however, moderated the relationship between daily hassles and psychological functioning (e.g., depressive and anxiety symptoms). Implications of findings are discussed.

A Preliminary Investigation of Body Dissatisfaction and Eating Disorder Symptomatology with Bisexual Individuals

Body dissatisfaction and eating disorder symptomatology were examined in bisexual individuals (n = 139 women, n = 37 men) and compared to lesbian/gay (n = 51 women, n = 96 men) and heterosexual individuals (n = 82 women, n = 34 men) in a U.S. online sample. Age, body mass index (BMI), income, and exercise frequency served as covariates. MANCOVA results showed a significant gender by sexual orientation interaction and significant main effects of gender and sexuality. Univariate tests were used to explore multivariate results. ANCOVA results for body dissatisfaction showed a significant gender by sexual orientation interaction. Post-hoc comparisons revealed higher levels of body dissatisfaction among all groups compared to heterosexual men. ANCOVA results for eating disorder symptomatology showed a significant main effect of sexual orientation. Post-hoc comparisons revealed higher levels of eating disorder symptoms among bisexual compared to heterosexual individuals. For bisexual men, gay community involvement, maladaptive social comparison, drive for muscularity, self-esteem, gender role orientation, and body dissatisfaction were explored as predictors of eating disorder symptomatology while controlling for age, BMI, exercise frequency, and income in a hierarchical regression analysis. The same factors, minus body dissatisfaction, were explored as predictors of body dissatisfaction in bisexual men. For bisexual women, similar factors, with the exception of drive for muscularity, were explored. Drive for muscularity predicted body dissatisfaction and exercise frequency predicted eating disorder symptomatology in bisexual men. BMI and self-esteem predicted body dissatisfaction in bisexual women; gay community involvement and body dissatisfaction predicted eating disorder symptomatology.

Sex‐role conflict at work: its impact on consumption practices of working women in Turkey

AbstractChanging social norms regarding the role of women in society is fostered by women's participation in the workforce. Hence, changing role of working women in business life leads the transformation of gender stereotypes and roles. Women alter their gender role orientation according to the requirements of male‐dominated business life; however, the unchanged role in private life leads to sex‐role conflict. This study investigates the role of consumption as a key component of identity in the process of managing sex‐role conflict in a non‐Western cultural context. In‐depth interviews were conducted with working women with various cultural and educational backgrounds. According to the findings of the study, women are forming compatible identities, which reduce the perceived sex‐role conflict and consumption patterns are changing to suit the requirements of their new ways of living.

A cross cultural study of gender-role orientation and entrepreneurial self-efficacy

The study of gender differences in entrepreneurial self-efficacy to date has produced inconclusive results. Cross-cultural studies are virtually non-existent. The present study seeks to understand the complex interplay of biological sex, socialized gender-roles, and culture on entrepreneurial self-efficacy and motivation to become an entrepreneur. Findings indicate that among American business students the traditional view of “entrepreneur as male” is fading. For the next generation of business leaders and entrepreneurs, a new entrepreneur stereotype is emerging that balances stereotypical feminine and masculine characteristics. These findings were not replicated in Spain where traditional gender-role stereotypes associated with entrepreneurship persist, even among business students. Implications for entrepreneurial education are discussed as they relate to the development of skills associated with venture creation.

Gender pay gap and its perceptions

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to broaden the domain of the gender pay gap research by exploring individuals' perceptions of it. Examining the factors that have an impact on the way individuals perceive the gender pay gap helps answering the question of why it persists and how to overcome it.Design/methodology/approachThe paper provides a conceptual model of the factors proposed to influence individuals' perceptions of the gender pay gap by adopting social comparison, equity, occupational socialization, relative deprivation, expectancy and social dominance theories as well gender socialization perspective.FindingsAccording to the conceptual framework, such individual factors as pay expectations, gender role orientation, perceived pay fairness, gender, age, marital status and education facilitate the perceived gender pay gap. Furthermore, gender composition of employment sector and occupational status predict individuals' perceptions of the gender pay gap. Finally, welfare state regime and the degree of public awareness constitute the perceived gender pay gap.Practical implicationsBesides, the obvious suggestion of eliminating the gender pay gap, the paper suggests that more efforts should be made by media and governments to discuss the concept of the gender pay gap and make women aware of their rights and opportunities.Originality/valueThe main of this paper is that it draws together different theoretical perspectives into the model of the perceived gender pay gap.

Effects of gender role on personal resources and coping with stress

This current study investigates the relationship between the endorsement of masculine and feminine gender role orientation in accordance with Bem's indices and both personal resources and coping with stress. The Bem Sex Role Inventory, the Coping Inventory for Stressful Situations, the Satisfaction with Life Scale, the Life Orientation Scale-Revised, the General Self-Efficacy Scale and the Personal Competence Scale were completed by 308 employees of a city transport company (123 females and 185 males). Results reveal that androgynous individuals, masculine women and masculine men, possess stronger psychological resources compared with undifferentiated and feminine individuals. and feminine individuals. Moreover, satisfaction with life, femininity, the sense of personal competence and optimism are significant predictors of coping (in descending order of influence). significant predictors of coping (in descending order of influence). Masculinity is a significant positive predictor only in problem-oriented coping. These findings may have implications for the conservation of personal resources as well as for stress management interventions.

The Impact of Gender on Binge Drinking Behavior Among U.S. College Students Attending a Midwestern University: An Analysis of Two Gender Measures

Using a critical feminist framework, the authors examine the relationship between gender role orientation and binge drinking among college students. Two measures of gender identity are employed: The Bem Sex Role Inventory and the Personal Attributes Questionnaire. The authors test the hypothesis that traditional masculine gender role orientation is predictive of contemporary binge drinking behavior among college students. Gender role orientation, as measured by each scale (independently and combined), has a significant impact on drinking. Masculine gender identity is a significant predictor of binge drinking while controlling for respondent’s sex. Binge drinking and its implications are discussed in the context of alcohol-related crime and victimization.

Conflict in purchase decision making within couples

PurposeThis paper aims to explore conflict and its resolution strategies adopted by Tunisian spouses in the purchase of furniture. This paper also seeks to examine the determinants of the variation in resolution strategies adopted by the couples.Design/methodology/approachFollowing an exploratory study and two focus group discussions, a number of conflict resolution strategies compatible with the Tunisian cultural context are generated and submitted for examination through a survey of 129 couples (N=258 individuals).FindingsThe findings suggest that conflicts are more marked with regard to the non aesthetic aspects of the furniture. The findings also show that the variations in strategies of conflict resolution used by spouses depend on the gender role orientation, the family life cycle and the socio‐demographic characteristics.Research limitations/implicationsThe paper provides insights on the conflict occurring in purchase of furniture and the strategies used by spouses to reach a decision. However, the findings need to be validated on other samples and other products to better apprehend Muslim family interactions.Practical implicationsFor marketers, the findings point to the importance of being aware of the extent of conflict and the used strategies to resolve it. Such knowledge may better refocus marketing efforts towards solving conflicts and help couples reach a purchase decision.Originality/valueThis paper focuses on the decisional dynamics in Tunisian Islamic context.

Masculinity issues in addiction treatment in Swiss inpatient alcohol programs: bringing men's treatment needs back to the research agenda

Background Various types of risk behaviors, including alcohol and drug consumption, are by far more frequent among men than among women. Men represent the majority of patients in addiction programs. However, the relationship between male gender role orientations and the treatment response is under researched. This paper sheds light on the relative importance of masculinity concepts within both the general population and a clinical sample, the perception of specific treatment needs by male alcohol patients, and the response to masculinity topics in treatment practice. Methods The study was conducted among 200 men in two Swiss alcohol inpatient programs, representative for the total patient load in the Swiss alcohol treatment system and included a matched population control group ( n = 200). The Bem Sex Role Inventory, the Male Role Norm Scale and the Masculine Gender Role Stress Scale were included in the group comparison. Results Patients show significantly lower values on the masculinity subscale and lower values on the femininity subscale than the control group: the ‘undifferentiated man’ is typical for the clinical setting. Patients who acknowledge men-specific treatment needs suffer significantly more from gender role stress and problems with sexuality and fatherhood than patients who are not aware of masculinity issues. For both topics, patients prefer a non-therapeutic setting. Group and individual therapy do not address sexuality and fatherhood issues. Conclusions These findings suggest that for specific subgroups of men an appropriate diagnosis should first check on sensitive masculinity issues, then assess gender role orientations and masculinity stress and provide adequate treatment modalities.

The Effect of Gender Role Orientation on Work Interference with Family (WIF) and Family Interference with Work (FIW) among Married Female Nurses in Shiraz-Iran

The present study highlights the significance of gender role orientation as one of the most important individual factors on WIF and FIW. Furthermore, this paper also examines the effects of some of the essential personal backgrounds such as age, job experience and duration of marriage on WIF and FIW. This study consists of 198 married female nurses in Shiraz-Iran. The findings revealed that married female nurses who adopt more egalitarian gender role attitude are associated with higher WIF. Unlike previous studies, the finding also indicates that respondents who adopt a more egalitarian gender role attitude experienced higher FIW, which may be explained by the specific cultural context in Iran. This study also established that female nurses with older age, more years of job experience, and longer duration of marriage, perceived lower level of WIF and FIW. Implications are discussed and recommendations are made regarding future researches in this area.

Assessing gender role of partner-violent men using the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2 (MMPI-2): Comparing abuser types.

This study investigated traditional masculine gender role differences between male partner abuser types using the Masculinity/Femininity subsection scales of Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2 (MMPI-2) Structural Summary. We examined differences between four groups of partner-violent men (borderline, antisocial, psychotic features, and nonpathological partner violent) and one group of nonpartner-violent men on five MMPI-2 subscales: Masculinity-Femininity, Gender Role-Feminine, Gender Role-Masculine, Ego Inflation, and Low Self-esteem. Results indicated that the borderline group reported the most consistent traditional feminine gender role orientation of all the groups, whereas the antisocial group reported the most consistent traditional masculine gender role orientation of all the groups. The psychotic features group reported characteristics associated with both traditional masculinity and traditional feminine gender role making it distinct among all the groups. The nonpathological intimately violent group and the nonpartner-violent group reported no extreme scores when compared with the other three groups. The borderline and antisocial groups reported significantly more exposure to family of origin violence and use of more severe forms of partner abuse than the other three partner abuse groups. Treatment implications are addressed.

Sex differences in tax compliance: Differentiating between demographic sex, gender-role orientation, and prenatal masculinization (2D:4D)

We used decision-making experiments to investigate tax compliance of women and men and focused on gender-role orientation as well as on the second-to-fourth digit ratio (2D:4D), a putative marker of prenatal testosterone exposure. In 60 experimental periods, participants were endowed with a certain amount of money representing income and had to pay taxes. They were audited with a certain probability and fined in case of detected evasion. Both demographic sex and gender-role orientation were significantly related to tax compliance, whereas 2D:4D was not. Women and less male-typical individuals were more compliant than men and more male-typical individuals. Women and men also differed regarding their taxpaying strategies. Whereas for men audits increased subsequent evasion, women’s tax payments were less affected by prior audits.

Associations between femininity ideology and body appreciation among British female undergraduates

The current study examined the relationships between gender ideology and body image in a sample of British female undergraduates. A total of 135 women completed the Body Appreciation Scale (BAS), the Femininity Ideology Scale (FIS), and provided their demographic details. Inter-item correlations showed significant negative correlations between body appreciation scores and the total FIS score, FIS subscales of Purity and Stereotypic Images and Activities, and respondent BMI ( rs −.17 to −.26). A multiple linear regression showed that Stereotypic Images and Activities and participant BMI alone explained 10.0% of the variance in body appreciation. These results are discussed in relation to previous studies showing mixed associations between gender role orientation and body image and eating disorders.

Job satisfaction and gender identity of women managers and non-managers

This work investigates different cognitive aspects of job satisfaction (co-workers, supervisor, job content, working facilities, organization and management, opportunities for development, income), positive and negative affect at work and their relations to gender role orientation of women occupying managerial and non-managerial positions. The sample of 122 women (60 managers and 62 non-managers) completed a battery of instruments such as: the Bem Sex Role Inventory, the Job Description Inventory by Neuberger and Allerbeck and the Job Affect Scale by Brief et al. Most women managers represented androgynous and masculine types, while women non-managers belonged to androgynous and feminine types. Moreover, women with various degrees of sex-typing showed positive and negative affect at work. The most satisfied with income were masculine women managers, the least--feminine women non-managers. These results may be applied in designing of motivational instruments to enhance job effectiveness and to eliminate unproductive behaviours such as absenteeism, high staff turnover.

Male and Female University Students’ Experiences of Indirect Aggression

This study examines the role of sex, gender role orientation, social representations of indirect aggression, and indicators of psychosocial adjustment in indirect aggression and victimization in an emerging adult sample. A total of 42 participants (19 men, 23 women) recruited are required to complete the questionnaires, along with 18 participants out of the total study sample also completing daily journals. No sex differences are found for either indirect aggression or victimization. Indirect victimization is found to be the most significant predictor of indirect aggression. When controlling for indirect aggression, mania is the most significant predictor of indirect victimization. An inductive thematic analysis of the journals is conducted. The results are interpreted in relation to previous research and theory. Limitations, implications, and directions for future research are discussed.

Is Masculinity a Prerequisite to Female Managerial Advancement in Pakistan?

Global research on women in management has focused on the male managerial model or masculinity as important to female managerial advancement. This study is of significance because it demonstrates that it has been difficult for the managerial women of Pakistan to break away from the traditional role expectations defined by their society. Gender role identity occurs as a result of rearing patterns. It is social practice that determines gender role identity. Women usually acquire a great deal of sex role learning early in their lives. Undoing that learning process takes time, which is why, there was no dominant gender role orientation of managerial women in Pakistan. Our study demonstrates gender role orientations for women in management can be overshadowed by their unique socio-cultural environments. Unlike the global literature which does not place a positive value on undifferentiated individuals, undifferentiated gender identity is not a barrier to women’s managerial advancement in Pakistan.