Gender Inequality Research Articles

WHAT MAKES A SUCCESSFUL UNICORN STARTUP FOUNDER? EXPLORING FOUNDERS’ BACKGROUNDS

Purpose: The rapid growth of unicorn startups — privately held startup companies valued at over $1 billion — has inspired researchers and investors to better understand the key factors behind their success. While product-market fit, timing, and business models are frequently studied, this paper dive deeper into the backgrounds of the founders themselves. By analyzing various educational, and professional attributes of unicorn startup founders, we seek to uncover common patterns and insights that might hint at the success criteria of unicorn creation. Design/Methodology/Approach: Our study adopted an exploratory approach utilizing both quantitative and qualitative methods to discover the nuances of unicorn startup founders' backgrounds. Using a dataset of 3925 founders, we identified patterns in unicorn creation. In addition, qualitative insights were garnered through a review of existing literature. This approach provided a comprehensive view bridging the data with theoretical review. Findings: A significant proportion of unicorn startup founders 1163 of the 3925 examined, had prior entrepreneurial engagements, which underlines the value of experience in high-impact ventures. A pronounced gender imbalance was observed, with a whopping 93% of founders being male, spotlighting potential systemic and cultural barriers in the entrepreneurial field. Fields such as International Relations, Public Administration, and STEM disciplines like Bioengineering and Medical Informatics were represented among the unicorn producing majors. These findings suggest a cross-disciplinary effect resulting in unicorn creation. Originality: Instead of just focusing on one part of founders’ background, this study combines their education and experiences to give a full picture. This approach makes it unique and adds a new perspective to what we know about successful startups. This new angle can prompt more research and give us a deeper understanding of how unicorn startups come to be.

Gender Inequality in Educational Expenditure in India

Gender Inequality in Educational Expenditure in India

Primary school student’s mental wellbeing at schools considering the current situation in Afghanistan

This study investigates the mental wellbeing of children in primary school in Afghanistan during periods of political instability, specifically focusing on the Taliban's takeover of power in 2021. The study addresses the complex obstacles encountered by children, such as gender-based limitations on education, financial difficulties resulting in child labor, restrictions on personal independence, and changes in educational objectives, through the use of qualitative interviews conducted with teachers and students from different regions. The findings indicate significant impacts on the mental well-being of students, characterized by gender inequalities, financial difficulties, and limited liberties. Teachers also face obstacles such as evolving rules and financial hardships, which can impact their mental health. The evaluation also emphasizes the lack of supportive programs and healthcare services in Afghan schools. This research offers valuable perspectives on the experiences of students and instructors, which can help address the mental health crisis affecting primary school children in Afghanistan.

Women Empowerment in the Digital Age : Significance of New Media

The worldwide scene was totally altered by the technological revolution brought about by new media, the internet, blogs, and social networking sites and influenced the fundamental framework of societies, fostering more conversations, arguments, and intellectual production while enhancing the democratic capacity of governments. It is widely believed that new media can be an effective tool for women's development and empowerment, moreover gives women a voice and a forum to communicate their thoughts and concerns without fear of prejudice or retaliation. Women make up a large portion of the global population, and as science and technology advance, so too does the status of women, which is changing quickly. However, we cannot deny that there is a world in which women face numerous forms of discrimination, marginalization, and oppression, new media provides innovative spaces and platforms to address and effectively overcome such discrimination. These are being developed as spaces that are democratic in nature, embodying freedom and equality, while enabling a liberal space for women to speak out. It is relevant that other spaces do not have the same potential and capacity as the new media to become women's media, even if sometimes gender inequalities exist. This paper also examines the ways in which new social media spaces are the cause of women's advancement and the challenges they face.

The unintended consequences of IMF programs: Women left behind in the labor market

AbstractDespite societal progress toward achieving gender equality, women remain disadvantaged across all walks of life. We examine how pressures by the International Monetary Fund (IMF) for austerity and liberalization policies affect women’s economic empowerment in developing countries. Focusing on labor market outcomes, we expect that IMF programs increase the gender unemployment gap. This effect will hold regardless of existing societal gender norms, reflecting that women work in less ‘crisis-proof’ jobs. In contrast, we believe that prevailing societal gender norms will adversely impact women’s ability to remain in the labor force, resulting in widening gender labor force participation gaps. Relying on a dataset covering 128 developing countries between 1992 and 2018, we confirm these expectations. Our findings underscore how, during economically turbulent times, policy demands of the Fund can amplify existing gender inequalities.

Effects of short-term moderate intensity exercise on the serum metabolome in older adults: a pilot randomized controlled trial

BackgroundWe previously reported changes in the serum metabolome associated with impaired myocardial relaxation in an asymptomatic older community cohort. In this prospective parallel-group randomized control pilot trial, we subjected community adults without cardiovascular disease to exercise intervention and evaluated the effects on serum metabolomics.MethodsBetween February 2019 to November 2019, thirty (83% females) middle-aged adults (53 ± 4 years) were randomized with sex stratification to either twelve weeks of moderate-intensity exercise training (Intervention) (n = 15) or Control (n = 15). The Intervention group underwent once-weekly aerobic and strength training sessions for 60 min each in a dedicated cardiac exercise laboratory for twelve weeks (ClinicalTrials.gov: NCT03617653). Serial measurements were taken pre- and post-intervention, including serum sampling for metabolomic analyses.ResultsTwenty-nine adults completed the study (Intervention n = 14; Control n = 15). Long-chain acylcarnitine C20:2-OH/C18:2-DC was reduced in the Intervention group by a magnitude of 0.714 but increased in the Control group by a magnitude of 1.742 (mean difference −1.028 age-adjusted p = 0.004). Among Controls, alanine correlated with left ventricular mass index (r = 0.529, age-adjusted p = 0.018) while aspartate correlated with Lateral e’ (r = −764, age-adjusted p = 0.016). C20:3 correlated with E/e’ ratio fold-change in the Intervention group (r = −0.653, age-adjusted p = 0.004). Among Controls, C20:2/C18:2 (r = 0.795, age-adjusted p = 0.005) and C20:2-OH/C18:2-DC fold-change (r = 0.742, age-adjusted p = 0.030) correlated with change in E/A ratio.ConclusionsCorresponding relationships between serum metabolites and cardiac function in response to exercise intervention provided pilot observations. Future investigations into cellular fuel oxidation or central carbon metabolism pathways that jointly impact the heart and related metabolic systems may be critical in preventive trials.

Gender and Beyond: Employment Patterns during the COVID-19 Pandemic in Italy

This paper investigates employment changes during the COVID-19 pandemic for women and men in a country characterized by notoriously low female employment: Italy. The paper explores to what extent previously existing inequalities in employment were further exacerbated during the pandemic. Using data from the Italian Labor Force Surveys from 2018 to 2020, we find evidence of a limited decline in employment, but a steep increase in the number of individuals working zero hours during the lockdown periods. This result holds for both men and women. The pandemic highlighted how gender inequalities in employment intersect with other socioeconomic disadvantages: single mothers and lower-educated women were more affected than their male counterparts, while single men without children and foreign men were hit stronger than women with the same characteristics in the immediate aftermath of the pandemic. The pandemic thus came with differentiated consequences, generally affecting those already in less advantaged situations harder. At the same time, the results support the idea that women’s employment was crucial to counteract job loss in the family, and some became the only breadwinner for their families. This also exposed them to risks by working during the pandemic. Overall, the pandemic greatly accentuated preexisting social inequalities in the Italian labor market, yet with an apparently transitory effect at least regarding employment participation.

Maternal concentrations of environmental phenols during early pregnancy and behavioral problems in children aged 4 years from the Shanghai Birth Cohort

BackgroundPrenatal exposure to environmental phenols such as bisphenol (BPs), paraben (PBs), benzophenone (BzPs), and triclosan (TCS) is ubiquitous and occurs in mixtures. Although some of them have been suspected to impact child behavioral development, evidence is still insufficient, and their mixed effects remain unclear. ObjectivesTo explore the association of prenatal exposure to multiple phenols with child behavioral problems. MethodIn a sample of 600 mother–child pairs from the Shanghai Birth Cohort, we quantified 18 phenols (6 PBs, 7 BPs, 4 BzPs, and TCS) in urine samples collected during early pregnancy. Parent-reported Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaires were utilized to evaluate child behavioral difficulties across four subscales, namely conduct, hyperactivity/inattention, emotion, and peer relationship problems, at 4 years of age. Multivariable linear regression was conducted to estimate the relationships between single phenolic compounds and behavioral problems. Additionally, weighted quantile sum (WQS) regression was employed to examine the overall effects of the phenol mixture. Sex-stratified analyses were also performed. ResultsOur population was extensively exposed to 10 phenols (direction rates >50 %), with low median concentrations (1.00 × 10−3–6.89 ng/mL). Among them, single chemical analyses revealed that 2,4-dihydroxy benzophenone (BP1), TCS, and methyl 4-hydroxybenzoate (MeP) were associated with increased behavior problems, including hyperactivity/inattention (BP1: β = 0.16; 95 % confidence interval [CI]: 0.04, 0.30), emotional problems (BP1: β = 0.11; 95 % CI: 0.02, 0.20; TCS: β = 0.08; 95 % CI: 0.02, 0.14), and peer problems (MeP: β = 0.10; 95 % CI: 0.02, 0.18); however, we did not identify any significant association with conduct problems. Further phenol mixture analyses in the WQS model yielded similar results. Stratification for child sex showed stronger positive associations in boys. ConclusionOur findings indicated that maternal phenol levels during early pregnancy, specifically BP1, TCS, and MeP, are associated with high behavioral problem scores in 4-year-old children.

The impact of earthquakes on women: assessing women's mental health in aftermath of the Kahramanmaraş-centred earthquake in Türkiye.

Earthquakes disproportionately affect women and exacerbate gender and social inequalities. This study aims to investigate the psychological impact of the earthquake in Türkiye on women and the associated factors. This is a survey-based study. We collected data from 498 women residing in cities most affected by the earthquake. Participants' mean age was 27.72±5.4. Over 78% of the participants lost at least one family member, and 43.7% lost at least one child due to the earthquake. The mean average of Brief Symptom Inventory (BSI) scores was 100.8 (SD=8.37), and the Global Severity Index was 1.9 (SD=0.16). Regression analysis showed that higher education levels predicted poor outcomes across most BSI dimensions. Losing a family member and shelter and injury status were also predictors for several mental health outcomes of the BSI subscales. Earthquakes significantly impact women's well-being and may have a broader impact on the whole family. There is an urgent need to provide psycho-social interventions in the response and recovery phases of the crisis to meet the affected women's needs. This includes providing basic needs with attention to women-specific needs, restoring social networks, addressing gender-based violence and providing gender-sensitive specialized interventions for those who need further support.

The gendered impact of parenthood on job-related training participation in Germany and the United Kingdom

Abstract Recent studies highlight the role of parenthood in perpetuating persistent gender inequality in the labour market. We examine whether the transition to parenthood influences job-related training participation. This study uses fixed-effects models and longitudinal data from the German National Educational Panel Study (starting cohort 6, 2010–2021) and Understanding Society: The UK Household Longitudinal Study (2010–2019). Our findings show that women’s job-related training participation decreases following parenthood in both countries, but that this decline is steeper in Germany and persists beyond the early stage of parenthood. Furthermore, our mediation analysis shows that parental leave is one of the main drivers of the motherhood penalty in job-related training in both countries. In contrast, when men have a first child, it has a small negative effect on training participation levels in Germany and no effect in the United Kingdom. This study sheds light on the gendered impact of the transition to parenthood on job-related training participation and how the country context influences these relationships.

Food security and livelihoods in protracted crisis: the experience of rural residents in Syria’s war zones

Food insecurity is an increasingly pressing and grave issue in contemporary Syria. The ongoing crisis has severely affected agriculture in a country which used to be food-producing and self-sufficient. This study addresses the factors that impact household-level food security in Syria. Our analysis is based on 1,381 household surveys using a structured questionnaire in 12 governorates of the country. We followed a two-stage least square regression (2SLS) approach to analyse the interconnected factors of food security. We use three different indicators to capture different dimensions of food security: the Food Consumption Score (FCS), the Dietary Diversity Score (DDS), and the Reduced Coping Strategy Index (rCSI). Our findings underscore the vital role of aid programs and post-crisis remedial assistance in bolstering farmers' resilience and enhancing their food security. Despite adverse constraints generated by the prolonged crisis, continued reliance on agricultural activities continued having a positive contribution to food security. Female-headed households experience higher food insecurity than their male-headed counterparts (MHHs). However, Female-headed households excel in nutritional diversity. Both results should be approached carefully due to data limitations. Addressing the repercussions of conflict-induced food insecurity requires mitigating the effects of the proximity of conflict zones and reducing disruptions in food value chains. Future research should consider how food security relates to gender and intra-household gender inequalities during protracted crises.

Gender quota, women in politics, and gender parity in education

AbstractDo women in politics contribute to gender parity in education? This study seeks to provide an empirical answer to this question by examining whether women in politics (women parliamentarians) contribute to closing the gender inequality in education using a global sample of 191 countries from 1990 to 2020. We deployed the two‐stage least square (IV‐TSLS) technique and gender quota as an instrument to isolate the exogenous effect of women in politics on gender parity in primary, secondary and tertiary education. The findings from the IV‐TSLS estimators show that an increase in the number of female parliamentarians is associated with a significant increase in gender parity at all levels of education. These results survived several robustness checks, including using different estimators such as the Lewbel two‐stage least squares and the Kinky least‐squares estimators. Based on the quota type, we documented that women in politics significantly spur gender parity in education in countries with reserved seat quotas and not in countries with candidate quotas. We also found that the results differ across different geographical regions and income groups. The findings call on policy‐makers to address societal, legal and structural barriers limiting women's political participation to achieve gender parity at all levels of education.

An Overview of Physical Activity Research Evolution in Africa: The Global Observatory for Physical Activity-GoPA!

To describe the evolution of physical activity (PA) research in Africa, examine income and gender inequalities, and discuss future possibilities. A secondary analyses of the Global Observatory for Physical Activity data on PA research in Africa (1950-2019). We identified 514 PA articles from 47 African countries in the past 70years. Majority (83.1%) of the articles were published between 2012 and 2019. Fifteen countries had no publications. Six countries (South Africa [n = 156], Nigeria [n = 85], Ethiopia [n = 44], Ghana [n = 41], Kenya [n = 39], and Cameroon [n = 20]) accounted for about 75% of the publications. Most articles were observational (92.4%), single-country studies (78.4%), with male first (58.4%) and last authors (68%), and were classified as surveillance studies (45.1%). Few studies addressed interventions (5.8%) and policy (3.5%) or used device-based PA measurement (14.0%). The number of articles per country was positively related to human population level (r = .552, P = .000) and gross domestic product % spent on research and development (r = .301, P = .040). The publication rate per 100,000 people was positively related with the human development index (r = .349, P = .016) and negatively with the gender inequality index (r = -.360, P = .019). Our results provide an overview and status of PA research in Africa, highlighting country differences and gender inequalities in authorship. The findings may be used to benchmark the evolution of research in the region and to inform areas for improvement. There is an urgent need for more PA interventions and policy studies in Africa.

Do Family Policies Reduce Gender Inequality? Evidence from 60 Years of Policy Experimentation

Do family policies reduce gender inequality in the labor market? We contribute to this debate by investigating the joint impact of parental leave and childcare, using administrative data covering Austrian workers over more than half a century. We start by quasi-experimentally identifying the causal effects of all family policy reforms since the 1950s on the full dynamics of male and female earnings. We then map these causal estimates into a decomposition framework to compute counterfactual gender inequality series. Our results show that the enormous expansions of parental leave and childcare have had virtually no impact on gender convergence. (JEL D63, J13, J16, J31, J32)

Gender Inequality in the WAEMU

Gender Inequality in the WAEMU

The Commodification of Feminism — A Critical Analysis of Neoliberal Feminist Discourse

This paper critically examines the commodification of feminism within the framework of neoliberal feminism, a discourse that has gained significant traction in recent years. Neoliberal feminism emphasizes individual empowerment, personal success, and market-driven solutions to gender inequality. While this approach has succeeded in making feminist ideas more mainstream and accessible, it also poses substantial challenges by overlooking systemic and structural barriers that many women face. This paper explores the historical emergence of neoliberal feminism, its key characteristics, and the role of media and corporations in promoting commodified feminist ideals. It further analyzes the positive and negative impacts of neoliberal feminism on broader feminist movements, highlighting the shift from collective action to individual empowerment. Through critical perspectives from radical, intersectional, and socialist feminists, this paper underscores the limitations of neoliberal feminism and calls for a renewed focus on collective action, intersectionality, and systemic change to achieve true gender equality. By resisting the commodification of feminist ideals and advocating for more inclusive strategies, the feminist movement can better address the root causes of gender inequality in a neoliberal context.

Can North Carolina small rural farms succeed equally? Quantifying racial and gender disparities in acres, markets, and incomes

While small rural farms have long been the foundation of the United States' agricultural landscape, the historic context of gender and racial disparities within this sector has been understudied. This study aims to illuminate gender and racial disparities among small rural farms in North Carolina across operated acres, owned acres, market access, and farm income. Uncovering these dimensions provides valuable insights to promote equity in agricultural development. Using data from North Carolina small farms, we employ the Oaxaca-Blinder decomposition with Recentered Influence Functions to analyze the extent and sources of disparities. We find four key results. First, White-operated farms have 161% more land, are 2.88 miles closer to markets, and earn $174,000 more than Black-operated farms annually. Second, male-operated farms have 150% more acres and $126,000 higher gross income versus female-operated farms. Third, racial and gender disparities are most pronounced at higher ends of farm size and income distributions. Additionally, disparities stem from endowment and structural effects, with structural factors more prevalent at higher outcome levels. To address such disparities, policymakers should implement targeted initiatives to improve education, market access, and outreach for minority and women farmers while also reforming systems to dismantle structural barriers and enable equitable prosperity. Shedding light on racial and gender inequality is imperative for cultivating an inclusive, just food system where all small rural farmers can succeed.

In-State Retention Rates of Female Neurosurgery Graduates

We sought to determine the rate of retaining female neurosurgery graduates in the same states as their medical education and identify medical school and state characteristics associated with high retention rates. Database from the Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services was used to extract female physicians indicating "neurosurgery" as their specialty. The top 25 medical schools with the highest number of female neurosurgery graduates were selected. Descriptive analysis was used to determine the retention rate of female neurosurgery graduates. Univariable and multivariable analyses were used to identify medical school and state characteristics associated with high retention rates. Medical schools with the highest retention rate included the University of California, San Francisco (60%), the University of Alabama (60%), and the University of Pennsylvania (60%). Univariable and multivariable analysis showed the number of female neurosurgery attendings (β=0.036, 95% confidence interval [CI]=0.003 to 0.070, P=0.04 and β=0.036, CI=0.001 to 0.071, P=0.04.) and the healthcare employment rate (β=0.098, CI=0.011 to 0.186, P=0.03 and β=0.117, CI=0.021 to 0.212, P=0.02) to be positively associated with the retention rate of female neurosurgery graduates. Retaining female neurosurgery graduates within a state is essential for addressing the physician shortage and gender inequality. To encourage female medical students to practice in the same state, medical schools and states should work collectively to improve the visibility of female neurosurgeons and increase employment opportunities.

Neoliberal Feminism and Women's Protest Motivation

A popular form of neoliberal feminism seeks to advance gender equality in leadership and beyond by encouraging women to be resilient as individuals. By locating career advancement as within an individual's control, recent research has shown that this focus subtly shifts the blame for gender inequality onto women and reduces support for needed structural changes to tackle gender discrimination. We extend research into neoliberal feminism by examining anticipated negative effects on women's protest motivation. Across four studies in the United Kingdom (total N = 1,168), undergraduate women students and employed women with university degrees in both the control and resilience conditions first read about gender inequality. Participants in the neoliberal feminist conditions then read messages promoting individual resilience as key to women's advancement (Study 1–3) or participated in activities designed to build their own resilience as individuals to help them advance (Study 4). In Studies 1, 3, and 4, participants in the neoliberal feminist conditions compared to the control had lower collective action intentions – a negative effect that was either indirect, via reduced perceptions of gender discrimination (Studies 1 and 4) and reduced anger over inequality (Study 1), or direct (Study 3). Together, these studies provided partial support for our hypothesis that neoliberal feminism can undermine women's protest motivation. Future research can help establish how contextual and other factors contribute to the strength of these effects and explore how feminists can better harness messages of resilience. To advance gender equality, our findings suggest that advocates should focus less on individualistic solutions and more on addressing structural barriers, laying the groundwork for effective protest action and social change. Additional online materials for this article are available on PWQ's website at http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/suppl/10.1177/03616843241238176 .

Type of Alcohol and Blood Pressure: The Copenhagen General Population Study

BackgroundMost adults ingest alcoholic beverages. Alcohol shows strong and positive associations with blood pressure (BP). We hypothesized that intake of red wine, white wine, beer, and spirits and dessert wine show similar associations with BP in the general population. MethodsWe included 104,467 males and females aged 20-100 years in the analysis of the Danish general population. Alcohol use and type of alcohol were assessed by questionnaire. Blood pressure was measured by automated digital BP manometer. Multivariable linear regression models were used when analyzing the association between number of drinks per week and BP, stratified by sex and adjusted for relevant confounders. Each alcohol type (red wine, white wine, beer, and spirits and dessert wine) was analyzed in similar models including adjustment for other alcohol types. ResultsMost of the subjects (76,943 [73.7%]) drank more than 1 type of alcohol. However, 12,093 (12.6%) consumed red wine only, 4288 (4.5%) beer only, 1815 (1.9%) white wine only, and 926 (1.0%) spirits and dessert wine only. There was a dose-response association between total drinks per week and systolic and diastolic BP (SBP, DBP) (P < .001). The crude difference was 11 mmHg SBP and 7 mmHg DBP between high (>35 drinks per week) and low (1-2 drinks per week) alcohol intake. Overall, SBP was increased by 0.15-0.17 mmHG, and DBP was increased by 0.08-0.15 mmHg per weekly drink. After stratification for age and sex, effects were slightly higher among females and among individuals aged less than 60 years. ConclusionAlcohol intake is associated with highly significant increased SPB and DBP. The effect is similar for red wine, white wine, beer, and spirits.