Game Broadcast Research Articles

An Antitrust Analysis of the NCAA Transfer Policy

The National Collegiate Athletic Association (“NCAA”) is no stranger to antitrust law. As a trade association composed of nearly all U.S. colleges offering competitive sports, its rules are regularly challenged under antitrust law. In the past 40 years, the NCAA has faced challenges to rules limiting televised game broadcasts, curtailing assistant coaches’ pay, and restraining players’ compensation, among other issues. Restraints on college athlete transfers also could subject the Association to reasonable legal scrutiny. Restrictions on the ability to transfer can harm athletes by preventing their immediate eligibility even though transferring could allow them to be closer to family, enroll in more academically rigorous schools, or escape abusive coaches. Transfer restraints have an especially restrictive effect on players hoping to one day play in the National Football League (“NFL”). For these individuals, the college football system is the primary opportunity to showcase talent before declaring for the League’s draft. The NCAA’s transfer rules keep many of these elite players on their teams’ benches. This hurts their ability to prepare for careers in the NFL. And it denies football fans the opportunity to watch them perform in college. The NCAA’s rules that prevent football players from freely transferring between schools have changed over time. Why? Because of the changing preferences of members of the NCAA Division I Council (“NCAA Council”), a group of college athletic directors and administrators. In April 2021, the NCAA Council changed its rules to facilitate the movement of football players between schools, allowing athletes who had not previously switched schools to pursue transfer opportunities by entering a portal within a 60-day window. On October 4, 2023, the NCAA Council reduced the transfer window from 60 to 45 days. In this Essay, we explore the antitrust consequences of this latest action by the NCAA Council, as well as the broader competitive effects of limits on college football player movement. We conclude that: (1) the NCAA’s transfer limits impose substantial anticompetitive effects; (2) the NCAA could offer (but would need to prove) a justification based on reduced fan interest from a lack of team stability; (3) less restrictive alternatives (including the 60-day transfer window) are available; and (4) the restraint’s anticompetitive effects are likely to outweigh its procompetitive effects.

College Football “Kids”: Infantilizing Language in Football Bowl Subdivision Bowl Game Broadcasts

Paternalistic institutional structures are strategically arranged to maintain locus of control and preserve male-centric patriarchal authority. A confluence of cultural, social, and legal structures perpetuates paternalism within National Collegiate Athletic Association college sport and specifically in Football Bowl Subdivision (FBS) football. This study examined FBS bowl game broadcasts to determine the prevalence of paternalistic and infantilizing commentary. An analysis of in-game commentary from a sample of 18 FBS bowl games from the 2019 to 2020 season revealed that commentators frequently infantilize FBS football players, normalizing a paternalistic and exploitative coach–athlete relationship.

Twitch spouse: Livestreaming and the legacy of spousal labour in the video game industry

Precarious careers in the games industry have long relied on the unpaid and largely feminized support of spouses and family members. This paper addresses the role of spouses and other domestic cohabitants in the production of live game broadcasts on Twitch, Amazon’s world-leading platform in live video entertainment. I introduce the heuristic of the ‘Twitch Spouse’ to underscore the crucial role that domestic partners have played as invisible workers in the wider games industry, whose precarious conditions have been extended by the rise of at-home livestreaming. Drawing from ‘playful’ interviews and ethnographic observation with 12 Twitch creators located across the United States and Canada, I delineate three themes by which the partners of Twitch streamers vitally contribute to livestreaming: collaborative space production, the management of intimacy, and timekeeping. Herein, I show how a theorization of the ‘Twitch Spouse’ will build future pathways for recognizing the intertwined struggles of domestic and digital work within the precarious horizons of the game industry. This paper argues that Twitch streamers’ conceptualizations of intimate partners’ supportive labour reinforce domesticity and visibility as co-extended forces in the evolving relevance of digital labour to contemporary capitalism.

러시아 영화 <쓰리 세컨즈>에 나타난 냉전시기의 소련

The film Moving Up is one of the Russian blockbusters that succeeded at the box office in the 2020s, with a motif of nostalgia for the former Soviet Union. The story of this work is divided into two parts. The first part follows the style of a Hollywood blockbuster almost exactly. In other words, a heroic protagonist with deficiencies overcomes crises and conflicts and solves problems. In the film, a new coach of the Soviet Union's basketball team is appointed, and while he tries to unite with his players, he announces that he will defeat the United States and win the Olympics. His remarks were something no one could have predicted. The second part is the match footage, filmed with great detail, almost documentary-like. And this leads to victory at the 1972 Munich Olympics. Overall, these two narratives are organically intertwined, and the visual depiction is excellent. The game scenes were filmed with multiple cameras to create the excitement and tension in the actual stadium. In fact, the game scenes in the work convey to the audience the same feeling as an actual game broadcast. At the 1972 Munich Olympics, for the first time in 36 years, the American basketball team did not lose to anyone, even to the Soviet team. The most interesting thing is that the result of the match was added by the referee at the end. The thing is that it was decided by three seconds. On the one hand, the plot is very cinematic. On the other hand, it only lasts three seconds.

The Development and Problems of the Live Broadcasting Industry under the Impact of COVID-19

Faced with the convenience of the internet, people begin to rely more on the broad internet and the leisure it brings, allows people to transcend the limitations of time and space, experience and share exciting cultural, sports, artistic and other activities from around the world together. Network broadcasting has blossomed in recent years, from the earlier game broadcast, singing, and dancing to recent years where every event no matter how big or small has the chance to be broadcasted. Following the sudden outbreak of COVID-19, live streaming has been integrated into almost every persons lives. With the increasing popularization of an online lifestyle, live broadcasting has gradually integrated into everyones life. Through research and analysis, this paper aims to probe into the impacts and problems of the live-streaming industry, exploring its development since the pandemic and analyzing its main competitors and its future.

An Analysis of the Language Usage of the Twitch TV Users in the Context of Turkish Education

The aim of this research is to examine the language usage of Twitch tv users in the context of Turkish education. The data of the study, which is descriptive qualitative research, were collected from the chat message of three streamers who produced the most watched Turkish programs aired on Twitch tv. The number of viewer messages analysed in the study is 32.764. The findings show that these messages are produced mostly in Turkish language, but there are also others produced in other languages. The messages are found to contain emotes, abbreviations, neologisms and random laugh expressions which are used for communicative purposes. Turkish expressions are used more in the chat broadcast whereas in the game broadcast foreign origin words are more frequently used. In addition, when the chat messages of the three streamers for the same game were examined, differences are found in the language usage of the viewers. In the use of emotes, abbreviations, neologisms and random laugh expressions, there is no difference from the language used by the streamer or in the content. The analysis shows that the use of these linguistic features changes depending on the context. When we examine the data in the context of Turkish education, it has been determined that the language used in the platform does not match the aims of the Turkish Course Curriculum (2019). In addition, it was determined that emotes, abbreviations, neologisms and random laugh expressions were an essential part of communication. It has been suggested that some language elements that young people use frequently in the digital environment and that contribute to the meaning should be included in the Turkish teaching process.

Goal or Miss? A Bernoulli Distribution for In-Game Outcome Prediction in Soccer.

Due to a colossal soccer market, soccer analysis has attracted considerable attention from industry and academia. In-game outcome prediction has great potential in various applications such as game broadcasting, tactical decision making, and betting. In some sports, the method of directly predicting in-game outcomes based on the ongoing game state is already being used as a statistical tool. However, soccer is a sport with low-scoring games and frequent draws, which makes in-game prediction challenging. Most existing studies focus on pre-game prediction instead. This paper, however, proposes a two-stage method for soccer in-game outcome prediction, namely in-game outcome prediction (IGSOP). When the full length of a soccer game is divided into sufficiently small time frames, the goal scored by each team in each time frame can be modeled as a random variable following the Bernoulli distribution. In the first stage, IGSOP adopts state-based machine learning to predict the probability of a scoring goal in each future time frame. In the second stage, IGSOP simulates the remainder of the game to estimate the outcome of a game. This two-stage approach effectively captures the dynamic situation after a goal and the uncertainty in the late phase of a game. Chinese Super League data have been used for algorithm training and evaluation, and the results demonstrate that IGSOP outperforms existing methods, especially in predicting draws and prediction during final moments of games. IGSOP provides a novel perspective to solve the problem of in-game outcome prediction in soccer, which has a potential ripple effect on related research.

The ESPNification of Football Bowl Subdivision College Football: The Adoption of an Integrated Marketing Communication Televisuality in Football Bowl Subdivision Bowl Game Broadcasts

Football Bowl Subdivision (FBS) bowl games represent a final opportunity for teams to showcase themselves in front of a national television audience.Capital One Bowl Mania, as branded by the broadcast network ESPN, is a signature event of college football, and the College Football Playoff national championship marks the end of the FBS season. During the 2019–2020 FBS postseason, ESPN owned the broadcast rights to 36 of the 41 FBS bowl games. Controlling nearly 90% of FBS bowl games, ESPN controls therepresentationof almost every broadcast bowl game. Informed by extant research on the now defunct Bowl Championship Series, this study looks for evidence of a hypercommercial media logic in the institutional field of FBS bowl games. Using a mixed-method approach, this paper investigates the reproduction of a sample of 18 FBS bowl game broadcasts and considers the extent to which the increased use of in-game graphics in broadcast production structures and practices reflects an hypercommercial media logic.

Determinants of consumption for regional sports network programming: an examination of inheritance effects, lead-in, lead-out, and game viewership

ABSTRACT The financial health of major North American professional sports franchises is closely tied to Regional Sports Networks. These networks purchase local market broadcast rights from franchises and then create sequenced pre-game and post-game show content bookending each live contest. Despite the financial importance of Regional Sports Networks, no study has empirically examined the drivers of viewership for this sequential content. We create a sample of sequenced pre-game show, game broadcast, and post-game show ratings and uncover statistically significant audience carryover from each broadcast to the next. We also demonstrate substantial variance in the viewership determinants for each live program, suggesting viewers have different consumption preferences for each program type. We further illustrate that local team performance relative to expectations significantly impacts ratings for the subsequent non-adjacent pre-game show broadcast. The results are crucial to broadcast rights valuation, advertising values, and programming strategy.

Causality between Video Games and Cognitive Aggression

Previous research has shown that violent video games increase aggressive thoughts, feelings, and physical arousal associated with aggression. Hardcore video game live broadcast has become a trend among gamers, and the effect of violent video game live broadcast can be close to reality. However, there is very little research on the impact of streaming video games. Current research tests the impact of streaming video games on aggressiveness levels. Participants were randomly assigned to watch one of two video game broadcasts, each broadcast for 5 minutes and were asked to complete Buss & Perry Aggression Scale and Word Knowledge Challenge. A two-way analysis of variance was performed between subjects whose empathy type (violent or non-violent) was the independent variable and gender was the predictor. These include the sum of physical attacks, verbal attacks, anger and hostility, and age. The dependent variable measures the availability of aggressive thoughts in people’s cognitive abilities and is determined by the words completed in the word completion task. The basic main effect of transmission type individuals who watched broadcasts of violent video games showed a higher percentage of offensive words at word completion. Gender has little effect on the percentage of offensive words completed; however, after controlling for the nature of the live broadcast, males are more aggressive than females in live broadcasts of violent video games. Regarding the proportion of offensive words, there is a significant correlation between gender and the type of transmission. In particular, the proportion of offensive words uttered by men in the violent transmission is higher.

Innovative sports-embedded gambling promotion: A study of spectators’ enjoyment and gambling intention during XFL games

The sports industry has continued to grow on the basis of innovative practices. One such recent innovation in sport was the introduction of live on-screen betting odds during XFL game broadcasts. Such a service had never before been offered in the United States. This paper examines the impact of these live on-screen betting odds on fan engagement and consumer experience (increased spectator enjoyment and gambling intention) during the XFL season. Fuzzy-set qualitative comparative analysis reveals interesting results. For both increased spectator enjoyment and high levels of gambling intention, the combination of high levels of perceived enjoyment, excitement expectancy, and escape expectancy has the highest explanatory capacity. Moreover, increased XFL spectator enjoyment is associated with gambling intention. These findings highlight the power of mediated sport to generate excitement among sports consumers. The findings also provide new knowledge regarding the use of sports-embedded gambling promotion. The progressive use of innovative strategies to increase the perceived enjoyment of XFL spectators when they see live on-screen betting odds during televised XFL games can enhance their gambling intention.

RETRACTED: Research on segmentation of sports images based on GMMLS method

The transmission is a major economic game broadcast, not just playing games, video files, and can be tracked by image segmentation. However, from the current situation, it can see the video segmentation technology is still immature. Image segmentation is a technique that divides the original image into several different categories. Many of the possible solutions, it can be made available for image segmentation into different motion image segmentation qualities and each, some of the categories. The first step in the preprocessing is to remove the noise from the image. The second level is designed to be based on the proposed Gaussian Mixed Model Level Set (GMMLS), which uses multi-level threshold technology for image segmentation. The GMMLS is expected to realize an image processing method because it is substantially parallel to and consistent with the regional image division processing. And the third process, feature extraction, completion and final motion image classification. Experiments have demonstrated the feasibility of artificial life methods in both luminance and color images. Experimental results show that the algorithm provides fast segmentation with high perceptual segmentation quality while moving the image split view.

Spontaneous, Yet Studious

Esports commentating, the practice of reporting, explaining, and elaborating live competitive gameplay to spectators, is a centerpiece of esports as a rapidly growing spectator sport and an essential component of today's growing gaming/live streaming ecosystem. In particular, esports commentators face three unique challenges: the preparation for conducting real time commentating on highly dynamic esports games; the complexity of in-the-moment decisions during the game's broadcast; and the balance between personal self-presentation and professional content presentation. Yet this emerging and novel sociotechnical practice and how these challenges affect esports commentators' live performance and self-presentation practices has received relatively little research attention in HCI and CSCW. In this paper, we endeavor to address these limitations by empirically analyzing 19 esports commentators' sociotechnical practices. Our findings highlight the complex interaction dynamics involved in esports commentating as well as the importance of professionalism and social presence in esports commentators' self-presentation. In order to execute seamless and spontaneous commentary, commentators must be studious and engage in much prior research and have a clear sense of self. We contribute to the growing CSCW literature on esports commentating practices by revealing esports commentators' unique decision making process presenting information and their self-image.

게임 개인방송에서 시청자의 만족도 및 선물후원의도에 영향을 미치는 요인: DouYu TV 플랫폼을 중심으로

With the recent development of smart/mobile devices, we have entered the ‘mobile only’ era, in which the personal broadcasting market has rapidly developed. However, there is still a lack of research focusing on both content qualities and creators’ features in a personal broadcasting setting. Therefore, based on the elaboration likelihood model (ELM) and prior studies related to personal broadcasting, this study identified the three key factors of content quality (i.e., value-added, relevance, and completeness) as well as the three important factors of creator features (i.e., reliability, professionalism, and interactivity) in the context of personal game broadcasting. It also verified the effect of these factors on viewers’ satisfaction and gift-giving intention. Furthermore, the moderating roles of viewers’ motivation (i.e., information gathering vs. entertaining purposes) and impulsive purchase propensity in the relationships between influencing factors and satisfaction and also between satisfaction and the two different types of gift-giving intention (i.e., free- and paid-gift-givings), respectively. The results of structural equation model (SEM) analysis with a total of 226 respondents of an online survey revealed that value-added, professionalism, and interactivity have a significant impact on viewers’ satisfaction, which in turn leads to increased gift-giving intention. This study is one of the first attempts to verify influencing factors of viewers’ satisfaction and gift-giving intention in the context of personal game broadcasting by drawing on the ELM. The results of the study may provide useful guidelines to various stakeholders regarding personal game broadcasting such as managers, creators, and viewers.

Acculturation of Brazilian NFL Fans in Virtual Interactions

Purpose: NFL is one of the most representative phenomena of contemporary American culture, working as a means to acculturing other audiences to the U.S. environment. Brazil has the second biggest international audience of the league in the world, and part of it is engaged to social networks during game broadcasts. Methodology: The study adopts the netnographic approach as research method, which was based on monitoring Twitter hashtags launched by ESPN channels in Brazil during three seasons, between 2016 and 2019. Results: Our findings reveal three practices of acculturation: comparison between Brazilian and American features, the embodiment of American rituals and routine changes to adjust to the schedule of the league. Theoretical contributions: This research contributes to marketing literature by showing how fan's interaction on social networks about massively mediated entertainment objects (i.e., media sports) can incorporate and resonate in an acculturation process. Practical contributions: Marketing professionals can look at fannish (i.e., prosumerist) interactions to achieve opportunities and competitive advantages based on reliable information acquired on social networks.

China’s New Mania for Live Streaming: Gender Differences in Motives and Uses of Social Live Streaming Services

ABSTRACT This study examined gender differences in social live streaming service (SLSS) use by focusing on audience needs for Real-life Communication, Escape, Fun Seeking, Partnership Seeking, and Social Interaction. Results of an online survey (N = 312) of Chinese SLSS audiences’ reasons for SLSS use, preferred genres, amount of usage, actual media behavior are reported. Based on Uses and Gratifications theory, we didn’t find enough evidence to show that the man-dominated image of SLSS use cultivated by Chinese media is true, and we argued that the exaggerated gender differences regarding audiences’ use levels and rewarding expenses were without merit. Nevertheless, we did find some differences due to gender. For example, male audiences are more likely to watch and prefer live game broadcasting, and their mediated communication is more active than females.

인터넷 1인 게임 방송 시청요인에 대한 상대적 중요도 분석 : AHP의 적용

갈수록 경쟁이 심화되고 있는 뉴미디어 콘텐츠들은 이용자들의 욕구와 부합하는 방송을 제공하는 데 많은 노력을 기울이고 있다. 때문에 이용자들이 그 콘텐츠를 이용하는 데 어떠한 요인을 중요하게 생각하는지를 알아보는 것은 매우 중요하다. 본 연구에서는 인터넷 1인 게임 방송을 구성하고 있는 다양한 요인들 중 이용자들이 시청 시 중요하게 생각하는 것이 무엇인지 그 상대적 중요도와 우선순위를 AHP기법을 활용하여 분석해보고자 하였다. 1차적 시청 요인 분석결과, 콘텐츠 요인이 42.1%로 가장 중요하다고 생각하고 있었으며 다음으로 방송 커뮤니케이터 요인이 30.0%, 상호작용성 요인이 27.9%로 나타났다. 2차적으로 각 시청 요인의 하위요인의 상대적 중요도를 살펴본 결과, 콘텐츠 요인은 오락성(70.2%)이 가장 중요한 것으로 나타났으며 다음 창의성(15.7%)과 정보성(14.1%)순이었다. 이어 인터넷 1인 게임 방송 커뮤니케이터 요인의 하위요인의 경우 진행자의 매력성(25.4%), 독창성(19.3%), 소통성(19.0%), 신뢰성(18.8%), 전문성(17.5%) 순의 우선순위를 보였다. 다음으로 상호작용의 하위요인 중 반응성(48.1%)이 가장 중요한 요인인 것으로 나타났으며 이어 쌍방향커뮤니케이션(42%), 통제성(9.9%) 순의 상대적 중요도를 보였다. 마지막으로 복합 중요도를 알아보고자 하였는데 분석 결과, 콘텐츠의 오락성(29.5%, 1위), 상호작용의 반응성(13.4%, 2위), 쌍방향커뮤니케이션(11.7%, 3위), 커뮤니케이터의 매력성(7.6%, 4위), 콘텐츠의 창의성(6.6%, 5위) 등이 높은 상대적 중요도를 보였다.

A Case Study on the Adjustment of Story Copyright Problems in Internet Game Broadcasting Media

A Case Study on the Adjustment of Story Copyright Problems in Internet Game Broadcasting Media

Some Issues of the Legal Regime and the Protection of PC-Game Broadcasts

The paper discusses the features of the legal regime of gaming broadcasts posted on the Internet. The assessment of the main approaches of domestic and foreign theory and practice to the definition of the legal regime of the game is given. The Author investigates the possibility of classifying game broadcasts as derivative works, as well as in the absence of features of a derivative work, as a public display or public performance of the work. The article presents the classification and forms of game broadcasts. In the paper the study of the theory and practice of Russia, the United States and European Union is concluded. Reviewed the relevant exclusions of above-mentioned legal systems that allow the posting of game broadcasts on the Internet. The conclusion is made about the need for improving legislation in the field of gaming broadcasts.

Neglected Performers in the Phenomenon of Live Game Broadcasting - From the Perspective of China and Europe

The boundaries of online video game (exclude live programs of large-scale e-sports competitions), whether in Europe or China, are not as clear as those of movies and music production. In today's society, the careers and activities derived from Internet and electronic products are more and more than before. Many netizens have begun to earn money and public praise by recording themselves playing online games and posting game videos on the Internet. However, the law on online game broadcasting is not clear, and game broadcast players have no right to their live works. This paper points out that although live game players cannot own the copyright of the game, they can have the performer right. Under Article 17 of the Copyright in the Digital Single Market, network broadcast platforms should also obtain authorization from game players while soliciting game copyright owners.