Full Charge Research Articles

Impact of Cathode Material Particle Size on the Capacity of Bulk-Type All-Solid-State Batteries

The implementation of all-solid-state batteries (ASSBs) is regarded as an important step toward next-generation energy storage systems, in particular for electric vehicles and portable electronics. This may be achieved through application of layered Ni-rich oxide cathode materials such as Li1+x(Ni1–y–zCoyMnz)1–xO2 (NCM) with high specific capacity and thiophosphate-based solid electrolytes. Here, the profound effect that the secondary particle size of the cathode active material has on the capacity of ASSB cells comprising NCM622 (60% Ni), β-Li3PS4, and In anode is demonstrated. We show the benefits of using small particles (d ≪ 10 μm), allowing virtually full charge capacity. This finding is rationalized through galvanostatic charge–discharge tests and complementary ex situ and operando X-ray diffraction experiments combined with Rietveld refinement analysis. Our results indicate the importance of considering and avoiding electrochemically inactive electrode material in bulk-type ASSBs, which we show usi...

Technical Analysis of 10-inch and 12-inch Brake Cylinder in Open Carriage (Case Study: Open Carriage in Surabaya Yasa Balai Gubeng)

This study was structured with the aim to determine the effect of changing the brake cylinder from 10 inches to 12 inches in the Open Carriage, because this Open Carriage is the only car that has two different brake cylinders from the other Carriage. The study was conducted by calculating the percentage of braking on the use of 10-inch and 12-inch type brake cylinders on the Open Carriage used at Balai Yasa Surabaya Gubeng. Calculate the working time and release time on the brake cylinder with a size of 10 inches and 12 inches of pressure 0.4 to 3.8 kg / cm2. Calculates the braking distance assuming the type of locomotive and the number of carriages drawn are the same. The study produced work time and release time that varied results, namely faster work time on BC 12 inch and faster release time on BC 10 inch. The results of the braking percentage that has been obtained from calculations with the standard braking percentage is 40% <l £ 120%. From the standard determined according to UIC, the use of a 10 inch brake cylinder does not meet the requirements of the braking percentage calculation when the load is full, and for a 12 inch brake cylinder can meet the specified requirements. The results of the percentage of brake block pressure that has been obtained from calculations with the standard braking percentage is 30% <þ 85%. From the standard determined according to UIC, the use of a 10 inch brake cylinder does not meet the requirements in the calculation of the percentage of the full charge brake block pressure, while for a 12 inch brake cylinder it meets. The braking distance obtained from the calculated simulation results with predetermined factors results in the braking distance for BC 12 inch being closer than that using 10 inch BC. To improve the results of this study it is necessary to test the brake cylinder components dynamically.

Impact of local electrostatic field rearrangement on field ionization

Field ion microscopy allows for direct imaging of surfaces with true atomic resolution. The high charge density distribution on the surface generates an intense electric field that can induce ionization of gas atoms. We investigate the dynamic nature of the charge and the consequent electrostatic field redistribution following the departure of atoms initially constituting the surface in the form of an ion, a process known as field evaporation. We report on a new algorithm for image processing and tracking of individual atoms on the specimen surface enabling quantitative assessment of shifts in the imaged atomic positions. By combining experimental investigations with molecular dynamics simulations, which include the full electric charge, we confirm that change is directly associated with the rearrangement of the electrostatic field that modifies the imaging gas ionization zone. We derive important considerations for future developments of data reconstruction in 3D field ion microscopy, in particular for precise quantification of lattice strains and characterization of crystalline defects at the atomic scale.

Forecasting electricity demand of electric vehicles by analyzing consumers’ charging patterns

The spread of electric vehicles (EVs) and their increasing demand for electricity has placed a greater burden on electricity generation and the power grid. In particular, the problem of whether to expand the electricity power stations and distribution facilities due to the construction of EV charging stations is emerging as an immediate issue. To effectively meet the demand for additional electricity while ensuring the stability of the power grid, there is a need to accurately predict the charging demands for EVs. Therefore, this study estimates the changes in electricity charging demand based on consumer preferences for EVs, charging time of day, and types of electric vehicle supply equipment (EVSE) and elucidates the matters to be considered for constructing EV infrastructure. The results show that consumers mainly preferred charging during the evening. However, when we considered different types of EVSEs (public and private) in the analysis, people preferred to charge at public EVSEs during the day. During peak load time, people tended to prefer charging using fast public EVSEs, which shows that consumers considered the tradeoffs between the full charge time and the price for charging. Based on these findings, this study provides key political implications for policy makers to consider in taking preemptive measures to adjust the electricity supply infrastructure.

Systematic Comparison of Active Balancing: A Model-Based Quantitative Analysis

A quantitative model-based comparison of ten active balancing circuits is presented for equalizing imbalanced cell energies of lithium-ion batteries. A mean current model approach for active balancing is used to describe energy transfers between battery cells for long charge/discharge operations. A Thevenin model for 96 battery cells is used as part of a mid-size electric vehicle. In quasi-static simulations, FTP75 driving cycles are continuously repeated until the first cell is discharged from initial full charge. Simulation results are compared for cases of new and aged cells with different capacity distributions concerning equalization speed and battery efficiency. The influence of control algorithms on results is investigated by comparing control approaches with voltage, state of charge, and charge capacities as control variables. The results of state of charge and charge capacities show their advantage over voltage-based balancing. The results of two detailed performance analysis for two specific cell distributions are confirmed by simulating two sets of 100 random cell charge capacity distributions for each balancing method and each control variable.

DESIGN A SIMPLE SOLAR TRACKER FOR HYBRID POWER SUPPLY

This paper presents a smart power supply by using solar energy as the sources. It reduces the use of fuel in order to achieve maximize generation of electricity (during day time). The project equipped with solar tracker device which is absorbs the ultraviolet (UV) from the sun in maximum condition. The tracker operates with dual axis rotation where it can be rotating with 360° or which is 180° vertical/horizontals. This circuit is activated when light dependent resistor (LDR) detecting the light where four sensors are placed at east, west, north and south position. The solar panel is embedded with gear system to control the speed of the tracker and also obtain full charge of the 12V rechargeable lead acid battery. The charge controller is used to control the load for operating the system and recharge the battery, it also to protect the battery from over charge.

Supercapacitors in Tandem with Batteries to Prolong the Range of UGV Systems

The purpose of this study was to explore a novel approach to power hybridization in relation to its effectiveness in an unmanned ground vehicle (UGV). This hybridization method is modeled after the power distribution methods found in living organisms, which utilize glycogen stores and adipose tissue to optimize power and energy density strengths and weaknesses. A UGV rover was constructed with an appropriate distribution of power storage elements creating separate power buffers. The primary buffer consisted of a 10 W solar panel array and a 600 F, 5.4 V supercapacitor bank, and the secondary buffer consisted of a 3.7 V 6 Ah lithium-ion battery pack. The primary buffer provided virtually limitless charge cycles with a superior power density juxtaposed with a secondary buffer that provided superior energy density and volumetric versatility. The design of this rover is presented in this paper; it was tested under manual and autonomous modes. The rover was found to be capable of effectively operating solely on the primary power buffer in high to low luminous conditions while being able to carry out basic extravehicular activities. The rover could travel roughly 22 km without any input power on a full charge of both buffers, and could smoothly switch between its own power buffers during operation, all while transmitting live first person video (FPV) and network data. The introduction of control algorithms on the onboard microcontroller unit (MCU) was also explored in both manual and autonomous configurations. The latter integrated linear regression to intelligently manage power and locomotion based on sensory data from photoresistors.

Pressure Characteristics and Chemical Potentials of Constrained LiFePO4/C6 Cells

Constraining lithium-ion cells increases the cyclic lifetime. However, depending on an expected volume expansion during charge and discharge cycling, defining the optimal constraining pressure range is not straightforward. In this study, we investigate a lithium iron phosphate/graphite pouch cell at four initial constraining pressure levels. As a function of C-Rate, the thermodynamic principle of the non-monotonic pressure curve during full charge and discharge cycles is evaluated. Using the rubber balloon model to calculate the chemical potential of lithium iron phosphate and discussing the relationship between the chemical potential and pressure, we illustrate the pressure curve qualitatively. By applying differential pressure analysis, we evaluate the resulting pressure curves of a single graphite stage. Approaching a fundamental understanding of reduced cycling lifetime of full cells with unknown material composition, we allocate the stages and stage transitions of graphite as well as the phase transition of lithium iron phosphate. Local extreme values in the differential pressure analysis indicate phase and stage transitions. These values can identify critical operating conditions that should be considered for defining the optimum initial constraining pressure range.

Power Scheduling for Renewable Energy Connected to the grid

In this work, a scheduling strategy considering an Energy Storage System (ESS) is proposed to manage the distributed energy resources (DERs) optimally in a grid-connected hybrid PV-wind-microgrid. In order to increase the use of the renewable energy sources and ensure a full charge in the battery for the next day. The optimization problem of this study is addressed through a linear mathematical model, to minimize the cost of energy bought from the utility grid and maximize the income for selling electricity generated by hybrid PV-wind. The optimization model is tested by using a simulation of the model. The achieved results confirm the effectiveness of the proposed scheduling strategy.

Police Officers’ Job Satisfaction and Consciousness of Human Rights in Korea

광복 이후 반세기 가까이 한반도 긴장상황과 정치적 불안으로 우리나라 경찰활동은 인권의 가치보다 사회안정과 질서확립 그리고 강력한 법집행을 중시하게 되었다. 게다가 증거에 기반을 둔 수사보다는 편의적 수사 때문에 많은 인권침해가 발생하게 되었다. 2001년 국가인권위원회가 설립됨으로써 우리나라 인권 역사에 한 획을 긋는 전환점이 되었다. 경찰 내부적으로도 2005년 인권전담기구인 인권보호센터를 설치하였고 국민들의 참여를 유도하기 위한 인권수호위원회와 시민인권보호단 등을 설치하였다. 그리고 인권침해상황을 개선하기 위해서 다양한 정책적 제언을 하고 인권경찰로 거듭나기 위해 매진하고 있다. 이런 경찰의 인권수호 의지는 법집행과정의 개선, 범죄피해자 피해회복 강화 등 많은 제도적 개선을 이루어냈다. 그러나 사회 제도적인 관성, 특수한 경찰조직문화, 증가하는 경찰업무 등으로 인한 경찰의 인권침해는 법집행과정에서 여전히 발생하고 있다. 덧붙여 일부 인권침해 방지대책들은 근본적인 문제를 해결하기 위한 방안을 제시하기보다는 일종의 전시행정적인 성격을 띠고 있다. 결국 경찰활동 중 인권침해를 실제로 개선하기 위해서는 경찰공무원 자신의 인권의식이 매우 중요하다고 할 수 있다.The establishment of the National Human Rights Commission of Korea in 2001 has become a ground-breaking turning point in the South Korean history of human rights. Internally, the Police Human Rights Center, an organization in full charge of human rights, was established in 2005 and the Human Rights Protection Commission and the Citizen Human Rights Protection Group were organized to induce participation of the people. They make various policy suggestions to improve the situations in which human rights are violated and strive to be reborn on the basis of human rights. However, the violation of human rights by police officers intermittently occurs during the process of law enforcement due to the special police organizational culture and the increase of policing service. Ultimately, police officers own consciousness of human rights is very important in eliminating the violation of human rights actually during the process of policing. To do this, it is crucial to maintain or improve individual police officers consciousness of human rights that may serve as a shield against violation of human rights during the process of policing. The purpose of this study was to determine how police officers job satisfaction affected their consciousness of human rights and to make policy suggestions necessary to improve security service of the police and solve the problem of human rights violation.

Full Charge Capacity and Charging Diagnosis of Smartphone Batteries

Full charge capacity (FCC) refers to the amount of charge a battery can hold. It is the fundamental property of smartphone batteries that diminishes as the battery ages and is charged/discharged. We investigate the behavior of smartphone batteries while charging and demonstrate that battery voltage and charging rate information can together characterize the FCC of a battery. We propose a new method for accurately estimating FCC without exposing low-level system details or introducing new hardware or system modules. We further propose and implement a collaborative FCC estimation technique that builds on crowd-sourced battery data. The method finds the reference voltage curve and charging rate of a particular smartphone model from the data and then compares with those of an individual device. After analyzing a large data set towards a crowd-sourced rate versus FCC model, we report that 55 percent of all devices and at least one device in 330 out of 357 unique device models lost some of their FCC. For some old device models, the median capacity loss exceeded 20 percent. The models further enable debugging the performance of smartphone charging. We propose an algorithm, called BatterySense, which utilizes crowd-sourced rate to detect abnormal charging performance, estimate FCC of the device battery, and detect battery changes.

Application of the Open Cycle Stirling Engine Driven with Liquid Nitrogen for the Non-Polluting Automobiles

Progress on advancing technology of using liquid nitrogen for the non-polluting automobiles is reported. It is shown that the low exergy efficiency of the known engines fueled with liquid nitrogen has discredited the very idea of a cryomobile. The design of the open-cycle cryogenic Stirling engine is proposed. This engine allows extracting up to 57% of the exergy accumulated in liquid nitrogen. The method used to calculate of such open-cycle Stirling engine is described and the calculation results and discussion are presented. It is shown that 200 liters of liquid nitrogen is sufficient for 180 km range of cryomobile at speed of 55 km/h, while a full charge of the 300-kilogram battery of Nissan LEAF electric vehicle is sufficient for a range of 160 km. Use of liquid nitrogen or liquid air as an energy vector in a transport will not require scarce materials, and, in comparison with using of lithium-ion batteries or hydrogen, this will require less capital investment.

Narrow optical linewidths and spin pumping on charge-tunable close-to-surface self-assembled quantum dots in an ultrathin diode

We demonstrate full charge control, narrow optical linewidths, and optical spin pumping on single self-assembled InGaAs quantum dots embedded in a $162.5\,\text{nm}$ thin diode structure. The quantum dots are just $88\,\text{nm}$ from the top GaAs surface. We design and realize a p-i-n-i-n diode that allows single-electron charging of the quantum dots at close-to-zero applied bias. In operation, the current flow through the device is extremely small resulting in low noise. In resonance fluorescence, we measure optical linewidths below $2\,\mu\text{eV}$, just a factor of two above the transform limit. Clear optical spin pumping is observed in a magnetic field of $0.5\,\text{T}$ in the Faraday geometry. We present this design as ideal for securing the advantages of self-assembled quantum dots -- highly coherent single photon generation, ultra-fast optical spin manipulation -- in the thin diodes required in quantum nano-photonics and nano-phononics applications.

A Low-Cost and High-Energy Hybrid Iron-Aluminum Liquid Battery Achieved by Deep Eutectic Solvents

Summary This work demonstrates a low-cost, high-energy Fe-Al hybrid liquid battery that takes advantage of the desirable properties of deep eutectic solvents (DESs). The strategy of additive enables the full charging and discharging of the Fe-Al battery with long cycle life while the stable stripping and deposition of Al is achieved. Using Fe(210) catholyte at a concentration of 5 M, the Fe-Al battery can deliver a high energy density of approximately 166 Wh L −1 with an average operating voltage of 1.41 V. Furthermore, by dissociating the iron complexes in Fe(126) DES, the Fe-Al battery can achieve the full charge and discharge over 60 cycles without degradation. Here, an all-DES-based liquid battery is proposed with an ultrahigh concentration of redox species, resulting in high energy density. The DES maintains reduced lattice energy and depressed freezing point and provides a new platform for developing green redox species based on new chemistry.

Nitrogen and sulfur dual-doped carbon films as flexible free-standing anodes for Li-ion and Na-ion batteries

Heteroatom doping is considered to be one of the most effective approaches to improve the electrochemical activity of carbon-based electrode materials for both Li-ion batteries (LIBs) and Na-ion batteries (SIBs) due to introduction of unbalanced electron atmosphere and enlarged interlayers of carbon materials. Here, we present nitrogen and sulfur dual-doped flexible carbon (NSC) film as a promising free-standing anode for stable high-power and high-energy LIBs or SIBs. The NSC film delivers high reversible capacities of 965.7 mAh g−1 in LIBs and 520.1 mAh g−1 in SIBs at a current density of 100 mA g−1. Particularly, the film electrodes exhibit excellent high-rate capability and remarkable long-term cyclability. For instance, as a LIBs anode, the NSC film remained a high capacity of 357.2 mAh g−1 at 2.0 A g−1 (∼10 min to full charge) after 2000 cycles; even in SIBs, a capacity of 155 mAh g−1 can also be reached at 1.0 A g−1. It is believed that the interconnected conducting structure of carbon backbones, heteroatomic defects and increased carbon interlayers distance by stable SC and NC bonds are beneficial to ultrafast ion diffusion and electron transport, making the NSC film become a high performance free-standing anode for LIBs or SIBs application.

A Study on the Charge–Discharge Mechanism of Ordered Mesoporous MoS2 Anode Material Via Synchrotron-Based x-Ray Analysis

MoS2 has superior electrochemical properties suitable for lithium ion battery, such as high theoretical capacity based on conversion reaction (670 mAhg-1), low volumetric expansion during electrochemical cycling (only ~103%) [1] and the week van der waals forces between layers, which enable facile intercalation / deintercalation of Li-ion in this material. So, MoS2 has been studied as a replacement material for commercialized graphite. The mechanism of capacity expression is known to consist of an irreversible intercalation reaction in the first cycle (MoS2 + xLi+ + xe- → LixMoS2) and a reversible conversion reaction (MoS2 + 4Li+ + 4e- ↔ Mo + 2Li2S) [2, 3]. However, there are some recent studies that contradict with this above mentioned electrochemical reaction mechanism. These studies agree about the irreversible intercalation reactions in the first cycle, but they suggest that the reversible reaction comes from the different reaction path (Li2S ↔ 2Li+ + S-), similar to a lithium-sulfur battery reaction. For example Shyamal K. Das et al [ 4 ] used Li2S and Mo metal XRD peak data to support this new reaction mechanism. Debin Kong et al [5] observed sulfur redox curve in cyclic voltammetry and In Jaewon Jin et al [6] report the presence of sulfur element using the TEM image after the full charge which again contradicts with the traditional reported mechanism for MoS2. To date, this debate is ongoing, and there is no definite study yet to fully support the either mechanism. In order to clarify the lithium storage mechanism in MoS2, we first selected the model structure to ascertain the complete mechanism by obtaining the maximum reversible capacity from this material. We synthesized MoS2 ordered mesoporous with 3-D nanostructure by using KIT-6 template. As shown in Figure 1, the model material exhibited a discharge /charge capacity of 1664 mAhg-1 / 1062 mAhg-1 in the first cycle and reversible discharge / charge capacity of 1357 mAhg-1 / 1343 mAhg-1 after 50thcycles. We utilized synchrotron radiation based characterization techniques to directly observe the local and bulk structural changes in the well-synthesized mesoporous MoS2 model material during the electrochemical cycling. The oxidation state changes of Mo and S were observed during the 1st irreversible and 2nd reversible electrochemical cycle using XAS and XPS. The in situ XRD experiment was used to confirm the formation of Li2S and/or Mo metal during the reversible reaction. In addition, SAXS was also used to observe the pore structure dynamics during the cycling of mesopourous MoS2 electrode.More detailed discussion will be presented at the 232nd ECS Meeting Reference [1] Tyler Stephenson et al., Energy Environ. Sci., 2014, 7, 209–231 [2] Qiang Wang et al., J. Phys. Chem. C, 2007, 111 (4), pp 1675–1682 [3] Kun Chang et al., Chem. Commun., 2011, 47, 4252-4254. [4] Shyamal K. Das et al., J. Mater. Chem., 2012, 22, 12988 [5] Debin Kong et al., Energy Environ. Sci., 2014, 7, 209-231 [6] Jaewon Jin et al., Nanoscale, 2015, 7, 11280–11285 Figure 1

Advantages of retrofitting old electric buses and minibuses

Old electric buses and minibuses equipped with obsolete energy storage systems are today circulating on the roads all over the world. A minibus prototype equipped with Ion-Lithium batteries developed in the ENEA Casaccia Research Centre demonstrated that an old minibus can be retrofitted by replacing the old lead acid batteries pack with a new pack assembled with LiFePO4 electrochemistry. The new batteries provide sufficient power to the electric motor, an amount of energy to cover nearly 30 kilometers with a full charge, with a new battery load of 50% of the previous battery pack. The new technology allows fast charging, thus solving the problem linked due to the long periods requested to charge of the conventional batteries. For example during public transport service, the minibus can be charged with only twenty minutes, allowing such operation at the terminus while waiting for the passengers. A “depleting” strategy can be applied in order to allow the minibus to be operating all the day with several charges at the stops.In this paper, the performance of a retrofitted minibus in comparison with the same minibus equipped with old generation batteries are reported. The economic benefits for the retrofitted minibus in comparison with a new minibus purchased from factories are also reported.

THE SOCIAL AND PHYSICAL VARIABLES ASSOCIATED WITH VIOLENCE AND BULLYING ACTIONS IN RESIDENTIAL FACILITIES A COMPARATIVE STUDY BETWEEN MALES AND FEMALES

The current study drives at exploring the social and physical variables associated with violence and bullying actions in residential facilities (as a social and physical environment) as a comparative study between males and females lodged in residential facilities. The study sample is selected purposely and includes (200) males and females lodged in those institutions, divided equally into (100 females – 100 males) lodged in full charge residence. This study belongs to the descriptive (qualitative) studies using the social survey method. The researcher uses a questionnaire form and observation, using as well some statistical approaches including T. Test, frequencies, averages, standard deviation, Chi-Square. The field study results show that the relationship between residents in residential facilities and people in charge of these institutions and between residents and their peers are characterized by violence and aggressiveness. The results also show that the lodged persons in these institutions have no privacy in their bedrooms, the bedrooms are common and grouping, few bathrooms. There are also physical variables such as spread out of insects and rodents in bedrooms. Results also show a correlation exists between residents and scales of various variables on Chi-Square coefficient. There are significant statistical differences between males and females on social and physical variables including the building, furniture, food, lightening, using the internet, and practicing sports. The study recommends organizing a national conference including all society categories and the governmental and civil society organizations to investigate problems of residential facilities in order to set the appropriate solutions. The study also recommends the necessity to work on internal regulations to restrict and prevent levels of violence and bullying within residential facilities and activating these regulations strictly in order to conserve the educational role of these institutions and raise those lodgers properly and healthy.

An Exploratory Study on Adopting Probation Case Management

본 연구는 사례관리의 구성요소인 사례관리자대상자, 사례관리자, 사회자원, 전달체계를 분석틀로 활용하여 보호관찰 사례관리의 적용 가능성을 모색한 것이다. 본 연구의 주요 연구결과는 다음과 같다. 첫째, 보호관찰 사례관리 대상자 선정에 있어 복합적인 범죄욕구를 안고 있는 자를 사례관리의 우선대상으로 선정할 것을 제시하였고, 이를 위해 위험욕구평가(risk and needs assessment)가 필수적임을 강조하였다. 이외에도 향후 노인, 장애인 범죄자의 증가에 따른 대비책의 필요를 강조하였다. 둘째, 보호관찰 사례관리 수행 인력과 관련하여 본 연구는 보호관찰소 내 전담직원을 배치할 것을 강조했다. 또한, 보호관찰 사례관리자는 임상과 행정 양면에서 능숙해야하며 보호관찰 사례관리의 핵심 기능 및 주요업무에 따라 다양한 역할을 수행할 수 있는 역량을 갖추어야 함을 제시하였다. 셋째, 사회자원은 보호관찰 사례관리의 성패를 좌우하는 매우 핵심적인 요소로서 지역사회의 공식, 비공식 자원, 그리고 보호관찰대상자에게 특화한 범죄예방위원과 민간기업 등의 사회자원의 적절한 혼합과 연계, 조정의 필요성을 제시하였다. 마지막으로 본 연구는 서비스전달체계로 보호관찰 내 사례관리, 중간기관 설치, 지역사회 위탁의 3가지 방안으로 정리하고 각각의 필요조건을 제시하였다.This study seeks the applicability of case management to probation system. In order to achieve the study objective, four components of case management including case management client, case manager, social resources, and delivery system, were applied as an analytical framework. The main results of this study are as follows. First, it is emphasized that the ‘risk and needs assessment’ is essential to selecting and screening for case management clients. This study proposes that those who have complex criminogenic needs should be first considered as case management clients. In addition, it emphasizes the necessity of preparation in order to cope with the increasing number of criminals with disabilities and elderly offenders. Second, in regard to staffing, this study proposes to place the dedicated staff members who can take full charge of case management within the probation department. Also, it is emphasized that the case managers in the probation field should be proficient in both clinical and administrative aspects. He or she should be skilled and competent in performing various roles according to the core functions and main tasks of the probation case management. Third, a core factor determining the success or failure of probation case management is social resources. This study emphasizes the use of a variety of social resources including formal and informal resources in the community, and specialized resources such as criminal prevention committees. Also, it suggests the referral and coordination of social resources and integrating them in a proper manner. Finally, three types of service delivery systems are suggested –operating case management within the probation department, interim agency which plays a role in connecting the probation department and community, and community consignment. Further, the requirements in implementing such systems are suggested.

Energetics of halogen impurities in thorium dioxide

Defect energies for halogen impurity atoms (Cl, Br and I) in thoria are calculated using the generalized gradient approximation and projector augmented plane wave potentials under the framework of density functional theory. The energy to place a halogen atom at a pre-existing lattice site is the incorporation energy. Seven sites are considered: octahedral interstitial, O vacancy, Th vacancy, Th-O di-vacancy cluster (DV) and the three O-Th-O tri-vacancy cluster (NTV) configurations. For point defects and vacancy clusters, neutral and all possible defect charge states up to full formal charge are considered. The most favourable incorporation site for Cl is the singly charged positive oxygen vacancy while for Br and I it is the NTV1 cluster. By considering the energy to form the defect sites, solution energies are generated. These show that in both ThO2-x and ThO2 the most favourable solution equilibrium site for halides is the single positively charged oxygen vacancy (although in ThO2, I demonstrates the same solubility in the NTV1 and DV clusters). Solution energies are much lower in ThO2-x than in ThO2 indicating that stoichiometry is a significant factor in determining solubility. In ThO2, all three halogens are highly insoluble and in ThO2-x Br and I remain insoluble. Although ½Cl2 is soluble in ThO2-x alternative phases such as ZrCl4 exist which are of lower energy.