Fuel Cell Vehicles Research Articles

Empowering Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles Towards Sustainable Transportation: An Analytical Assessment, Emerging Energy Management, Key Issues, and Future Research Opportunities

Fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs) have received significant attention in recent times due to various advantageous features, such as high energy efficiency, zero emissions, and extended driving range. However, FCEVs have some drawbacks, including high production costs; limited hydrogen refueling infrastructure; and the complexity of converters, controllers, and method execution. To address these challenges, smart energy management involving appropriate converters, controllers, intelligent algorithms, and optimizations is essential for enhancing the effectiveness of FCEVs towards sustainable transportation. Therefore, this paper presents emerging energy management strategies for FCEVs to improve energy efficiency, system reliability, and overall performance. In this context, a comprehensive analytical assessment is conducted to examine several factors, including research trends, types of publications, citation analysis, keyword occurrences, collaborations, influential authors, and the countries conducting research in this area. Moreover, emerging energy management schemes are investigated, with a focus on intelligent algorithms, optimization techniques, and control strategies, highlighting contributions, key findings, issues, and research gaps. Furthermore, the state-of-the-art research domains of FCEVs are thoroughly discussed in order to explore various research domains, relevant outcomes, and existing challenges. Additionally, this paper addresses open issues and challenges and offers valuable future research opportunities for advancing FCEVs, emphasizing the importance of suitable algorithms, controllers, and optimization techniques to enhance their performance. The outcomes and key findings of this review will be helpful for researchers and automotive engineers in developing advanced methods, control schemes, and optimization strategies for FCEVs towards greener transportation.

Investigation of the Theoretical Model of Nano-Coolant Thermal Conductivity Suitable for Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells

The fuel cell vehicle is one of the essential directions for developing new energy vehicles. But heat dissipation is a critical technical difficulty that needs to be solved urgently. Nano-coolant is a promising coolant that can potentially replace the existing coolant of a fuel cell. However, its thermal conductivity has a significant impact on heat dissipation performance, which is closely related to nanoparticles’ thermal conductivity, nanoparticles’ volume fraction, and the nano-coolant temperature. Many scholars have created the thermal conductivity models for nano-coolants to explore the mechanism of nano-coolants’ thermal conductivity. At present, there is no unified opinion on the mechanism of the micro thermal conductivity of the nano-coolant. Hence, this paper proposed a novel model to predict the thermal conductivity of ethylene glycol/deionized water-based nano-coolants. A corrected model was designed based on the Hamilton & Crosser model and nanolayer theory. Finally, a new theoretical model of nano-coolant thermal conductivity suitable for fuel cell vehicles was constructed based on the base fluid’s experimental data.

A Comparative Study on the Prediction of Hydrogen, Nitrogen, and Water Vapor of Regenerative Hydrogen Pump With Different Turbulence Models

Abstract The flow in a regenerative hydrogen pump used in a proton exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cell system is complex, including velocity mixing, streamline distortion, swirling flow, corner flow, and possible boundary separation. Experimental measurement and computational fluid dynamics (CFD) prediction are the main methods used to evaluate such performance. In this work, regenerative hydrogen designed for fuel cell electric vehicles with an impeller diameter of 91 mm and a shaft speed of 22,000 rpm is tested with a mixture of nitrogen, hydrogen, and water vapor. During the test, the flowrate and shaft speed ranges are 151–881 L/min and 8000–22,000 rpm, respectively. The inlet pressure and temperature are 171 kPa and 66 °C, respectively. Then, the flow is predicted by the k − ε model, the renormalization group (RNG) k − ε model, the explicit algebraic Reynolds stress models (EARSM) and the shear-stress transport (SST) detached eddy simulation (DES) model. The differences between the tested and predicted performances are compared. With these results, the velocity distribution in the side channel, the radial force of the impeller and casting, and the changes in the downstream pressure and velocity are analyzed in consideration of the ability of the turbulence models to simulate each characteristic flow. On this basis, the differences and abilities of the turbulence models for predicting the flow in regenerative hydrogen pumps are summarized.

Improved fuzzy energy management strategy for fuel cell vehicles based on IPIO

In the energy management of fuel cell vehicles (FCEV), the traditional fuzzy logic strategy has the problems of strong subjectivity and average vehicle economy. This paper proposes a composite fuzzy energy management strategy with the goal of improving the life of the auxiliary energy source power battery, using an improved pigeon swarm optimization algorithm (IPIO) to update the fuzzy membership function, while ensuring that the power battery works in a suitable range for a long time and reducing equivalent hydrogen consumption quantity. This paper conducts secondary development on the existing ADVISOR model to establish a simulation model of the FCEV hybrid system, and conducts simulation experiments under NEDC and CLTC-P operating conditions. The results show that IPIO's improved energy management strategy can charge more than twice as fast as the power following strategy when the initial SOC is low, and can reach the appropriate SOC range faster, which can extend the life of the power battery; when the initial SOC is high, the charging speed is more than twice that of the power following strategy. In this case, the equivalent hydrogen consumption of IPIO's improved composite fuzzy energy management strategy was reduced by 9.09% and 9.09% respectively in the two working conditions compared with the before improvement 11.8%, which significantly reduced the hydrogen consumption and improved the economy of hydrogen fuel cell vehicles.

Strategic Energy Management in Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles: A Prognostic Perspective on Dual Energy Source Degradation

ABSTRACTFuel cell technology is a promising alternative to traditional internal combustion engines in various applications, especially in transportation applications. This paper proposes a framework of strategic energy management for fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs), which is developed to safeguard the dual vehicle energy sources, that is, fuel cells and power batteries. This is accomplished by applying an energy management strategy (EMS) from a prognostic perspective. A fuzzy energy management approach is used to manage the power flow in the FCEV, enabling safe and predefined operation at multiple degradation points. To guarantee reliable and continuous energy source functioning, prognostics algorithms are incorporated into the EMS to identify energy source degradation. The prediction results are integrated into the controller by refining the controller parameters geometrically. Simulation outcomes show that the proposed EMS offers efficient use the dual energy sources, which improves the durability of the energy sources.

The impact of fuel cell vehicle exhaust grille shape under natural ventilation on hydrogen leakage and diffusion

The rapid progression of hydrogen fuel cell vehicles has brought forth various challenges, primarily the frequent occurrence of hazardous incidents stemming from hydrogen leakage and diffusion. Consequently, there is a growing emphasis on hydrogen safety, leading to the development of stricter standards and regulations to mitigate the associated safety risks. Research on the design of exhaust port structures to facilitate the safe diffusion of hydrogen after leakage in diverse scenarios has become increasingly significant. This study examines the impact of exhaust grille shapes on hydrogen leakage and diffusion phenomena within the hydrogen storage compartment of fuel cell vehicles under natural ventilation conditions. Five distinct porous grille shapes were examined: rectangular, circular, square, rhombic, and hexagonal grilles. Numerical simulations of hydrogen leakage and diffusion within the compartment were conducted using Cradle scFLOW software. The effectiveness of the different grille shapes was assessed using several criteria, including average hydrogen molar fraction, pressure drop (indicative of negative pressure regions), density, and Richardson number. Overall, the rectangular grille exhibited superior performance in facilitating hydrogen venting.

Simultaneous accelerated stress testing of membrane electrode assembly components in polymer electrolyte fuel cells

The durability of polymer electrolyte fuel cells (PEFCs) in fuel cell electric vehicles is important for the shift from passenger cars to heavy-duty vehicles. The components of a PEFC, namely the proton exchange membrane (PEM), catalyst layer (CL), and gas diffusion layer (GDL), contribute to the degradation of the fuel cell performance. In this paper, we propose a method for simultaneously evaluating the degradation rates of these components by combining electrochemical characterization with operando synchrotron X-ray radiography. The open-circuit voltage, electrochemically active surface area (ECSA), and water saturation were used as the degradation indicators for the PEMs, CLs, and GDLs, respectively. The results of two accelerated stress tests (loading and start-stop cycles) after 10,000 cycles showed that the increase in water saturation owing to the loss of hydrophobicity due to carbon corrosion in the cathode GDL occurred on the same timescale as the degradation in the PEM and cathode CL. Specifically, during the load cycle AST, the cathode CL degraded with a 26% reduction in the ECSA along with the cathode GDL degradation with a 10% increase in water saturation. This suggests that more efforts should be devoted to studies on the durability of GDLs for heavy-duty applications.

Experimental study on dynamic response performance of hydrogen sensor in confined space under ceiling

With the advancement of Fuel Cell Vehicles (FCVs), detecting hydrogen leaks is critically important in facilities such as hydrogen refilling stations. Despite its significance, the dynamic response performance of hydrogen sensors in confined spaces, particularly under ceilings, has not been comprehensively assessed. This study utilizes a catalytic combustion hydrogen sensor to monitor hydrogen leaks in a confined area. It examines the effects of leak size and placement height on the distribution of hydrogen concentrations beneath the ceiling. Results indicate that hydrogen concentration rapidly decreases within a 0.5–1.0 m range below the ceiling and declines more gradually from 1.0 to 2.0 m. The study further explores the attenuation pattern of hydrogen concentration radially from the hydrogen jet under the ceiling. By normalizing the radius and concentration, it was determined that the distribution conforms to a Gaussian model, akin to that observed in open space jet flows. Utilizing this Gaussian assumption, the model is refined by incorporating an impact reflux term, thereby enhancing the accuracy of the predictive formula.

Development and experimental validation of high-order sliding mode control for quadratic boost converters in fuel cell electric vehicles

The global energy evolution is at a critical juncture, necessitating an urgent transition towards clean and sustainable energy sources, notably green hydrogen, to combat climate change and the inevi-table depletion of fossil fuels. This transition is underscored by the emergence of fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs) as a promising solution for clean transportation, demanding advanced DC-DC power converter technologies to ensure their efficiency and reliability. This paper addresses the topic of control for the Quadratic Boost Converter, which presents a challenge due to its non-minimum phase characteristic and nonlinear nature. To tackle this, a nonlinear controller is developed using dual-loop control employing STA-SMC and Lyapunov theory as the control ap-proach. Simulation and experimental validation evaluate the controller's performance, testing ro-bustness against varying load currents and under time-varying reference voltages to assess its ef-fectiveness.

Performance analysis and optimization of a vehicular LT-PEMFC for maximum power density and efficiency based on NSGA-II algorithm

Based on finite temporal thermodynamics (FTT), a model for a low-temperature proton exchange membrane fuel cell (LT-PEMFC) is created. The link between the LT-PEMFC’s output power density and efficiency was determined using the aforementioned model. The experimental results confirm the algorithm model’s accuracy. Investigations are also conducted into how the design and operating parameters affect the LT-PEMFC’s output outcomes. Moreover, the NSGA-II technique is used to maximize the power density and efficiency of the LT-PEMFC for multi-objective optimization. The experiment outcomes demonstrate that the optimized LT-PEMFC model performs better at output. The related powertrain design scheme for the various output performances of Fuel cell vehicles (FCVs) is provided by LT-PEMFC optimization. It is demonstrated by the study of simulation data that the optimized LT-PEMFC achieves reduced hydrogen consumption and higher FCV efficiency.

A cost-effectiveness comparison of renewable energy pathways for decarbonizing heavy-duty vehicles in China

Decarbonizing heavy-duty vehicles is becoming increasingly important, yet multiple renewable-based decarbonization pathways have not been compared systematically. To fill this gap, this study develops a techno-economic and environmental model that integrates the fuel cycle and vehicle cycle to assess these pathways for China. The model includes two energy storage technologies: batteries and hydrogen, three energy transmission options, and two vehicle types: fuel cell electric vehicles and battery electric vehicles. Five distinct low-carbon pathways are evaluated on a ton-kilometer basis, including cost, greenhouse gas emissions, and abatement cost relative to conventional diesel trucks. Results indicate that the most cost-effective battery electric vehicle pathway offers a 7 % lower ton-km cost than diesel trucks for a 49-ton gross vehicle weight. Battery electric vehicle charging combined with hydrogen for power generation is more cost-effective than direct use of hydrogen in fuel cell electric vehicles. All studied pathways can achieve over 80 % emission reduction compared to diesel trucks, with fuel cell electric vehicle pathways having the highest abatement costs of 103–117 USD/tonCO2. Analysis of the impact of gross vehicle weight and vehicle range indicates that battery electric vehicle pathways outperform fuel cell electric vehicle pathways across most dimensions. Costs of battery electric vehicle pathways do increase sharply for vehicle ranges beyond about 700 km, and fuel cell electric vehicles become more cost-effective relative to battery electric vehicles for ranges above approximately 1100 km, although all pathways are much more costly than diesel trucks at long ranges. The sensitivity analysis highlights the importance of powertrain efficiency and cost projections show that fuel cell electric heavy-duty vehicles can achieve cost-parity before 2030. These results highlight the desirability of promoting the adoption of heavier battery electric vehicles and providing more targeted subsidies for long-range fuel cell electric vehicles.

Enhancing hydrogen storage efficiency: Computational insights into scandium-decorated 2D polyaramid

This study explores hydrogen storage in 2D polyaramid (2DPA) and its enhancement via scandium decoration for onboard storage in fuel cell vehicles. Sc decoration in 2DPA is accompanied by a net 1.6 e charge transfer from Sc to 2DPA. Hydrogen binding in 2DPA + Sc proceeds with a net charge transfer of 0.32 e from Sc towards H2. 2DPA + Sc demonstrates a maximum hydrogen loading capacity of 8.589 wt% with an average adsorption energy of −0.376 eV/H2. These findings meet the stipulated criteria by the US Department of Energy for solid-state hydrogen storage in light-duty vehicles. Feasibility studies were conducted considering practical limitations in transition metal-modified carbon nanomaterials, including Sc-Sc clustering tendencies, stability, and hydrogen desorption behavior via ab initio molecular dynamics simulations, phonon dispersion, and diffusion studies. The highest barrier height for hydrogen desorption from 2DPA + Sc is 0.48 eV, and desorption is predicted to occur at 412 K (5 bar) indicating possibility of room temperature and reversible hydrogen storage. Our findings indicate that 2DPA + Sc is a promising hydrogen storage substrate material and should be explored in experimental trials.

Prediction of composite pressure vessels’ burst strength through machine learning

In Hydrogen Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles, hydrogen is stored as compressed gas in tanks made from carbon fiber composite. Tanks are designed to withstand 2.25 times the nominal working pressure. If low variability in tank strength can be demonstrated, this margin of safety could be reduced. This requires accurate prediction of the strength of the vessel and quantification of its uncertainty. In this work, several composite pressure vessels are manufactured using filament winding, and the parameters that control the winding and curing recorded as time signals. Process parameters include fiber tension, winding speed, liner pressure, fiber volume fraction, winding time and curing pressure. The vessels are tested for burst pressure. Several configurations are defined, where each manufacturing parameter is changed. The recorded manufacturing data are fed to machine learning(ML) algorithms and trained to predict the vessel’s burst pressure. These ML algorithms include neural networks, Gaussian process regression GPR, Kernel Principal Component Analysis-Lasso (kPCA-Lasso), and an Ensemble regressor. The KPCA-Lasso and GPR models show good correlation. The Ensemble regressor yields better results by combining the KPCA-Lasso and GPR models. The study demonstrates the potential of ML algorithms in predicting the burst pressure of carbon fiber vessels from the monitored manufacturing data.

Electrification of transportation: A hybrid Benders/SDDP algorithm for optimal charging station trading

This paper examines the electrification of transportation as a response to environmental challenges caused by fossil fuels, exploring the potential of battery electric vehicles and hydrogen fuel cell vehicles as alternative solutions. However, a significant barrier to their widespread adoption is the limited availability of charging infrastructure. Therefore, this study proposes the development of comprehensive charging stations capable of accommodating both battery and hydrogen vehicles to address this challenge. The energy is purchased from the day-ahead and intraday auction-based electricity markets, where the electricity price is subject to uncertainty. Therefore, a two-stage stochastic programming model is formulated while the price scenarios are generated utilizing a k-means clustering algorithm. Given the complexity of the proposed model, an efficient solution approach is developed through the hybridization of the Benders decomposition algorithm and stochastic dual dynamic programming. In the Benders master problem, day-ahead bidding variables are determined, whereas the Benders sub-problem addresses intraday bidding and charging station scheduling variables, employing stochastic dual dynamic programming to tackle its intractability. Additionally, we transform the mixed integer linear program model of the second stage problem into a linear program, confirming its validity through KKT conditions. Our model provides practical insights for making informed decisions in electricity markets based on sequential auctions. While the bidding curves submitted to the day-ahead market remain unaffected by scenarios, those submitted to the intra-day market show dependence on fluctuations in day-ahead market prices.

Can subsidy policies achieve fuel cell logistics vehicle (FCLV) promotion targets? Evidence from the beijing-tianjin-hebei fuel cell vehicle demonstration city cluster in China

Fuel cell logistics vehicle (FCLV) plays a pillar role in achieving carbon neutrality in the freight sector. Due to high costs and imperfect infrastructure, millions of subsidies are granted to develop FCLV and fulfill promotion targets set by the government. To examine the effectiveness of this action, the study proposes a tripartite evolutionary game theory (EGT) model to simulate the interactions between local governments, private investors, and consumers, and explores the fulfillment of promotion targets in the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei fuel cell vehicle demonstration city cluster. The obtained results show that: (i) the FCLV promotion targets of demonstration cities except Tangshan could be substantially achieved under the current subsidy; (ii) purchase subsidies for consumers can help achieve promotion targets at a faster pace, while construction subsidies for investors have a limited incentive effect, so more non-financial incentives need to be provided to investors, such as innovative operating models and priority approval of land for hydrogen refueling station construction; (iii) a comparison of subsidies in different cities reveals that Beijing's subsidies are the most efficient and that there is an optimal allocation between consumers and private investors that allows for the faster accomplishment of promotion targets without increasing the fiscal burden.

The Environmental Impacts of Future Global Sales of Hydrogen Fuel Cell Vehicles

During the last decade, developing more sustainable transportation modes has become a primary objective for car manufacturers and governments around the world to mitigate environmental issues, such as climate change, the continuous increase in greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, and energy depletion. The use of hydrogen fuel cell technology as a source of energy in electric vehicles is considered an emerging and promising technology that could contribute significantly to addressing these environmental issues. In this study, the effects of Hydrogen Fuel Cell Battery Electric Vehicles (HFCBEVs) on global GHG emissions compared to other technologies, such as BEVs, were determined based on different relevant factors, such as predicted sales for 2050 (the result of the developed prediction model), estimated daily traveling distance, estimated future average global electricity emission factors, future average Battery Electric Vehicle (BEV) emission factors, future global hydrogen production emission factors, and future average HFCBEV emission factors. As a result, the annual GHG emissions produced by passenger cars that are expected to be sold in 2050 were determined by considering BEV sales in the first scenario and HFCBEV replacement in the second scenario. The results indicate that the environmental benefits of HFCBEVs are expected to increase over time compared to those of BEVs, due to the eco-friendly methods that are expected to be used in hydrogen production in the future. For instance, in 2021, HFCBEVs could produce more GHG emissions than BEVs by 54.9% per km of travel, whereas in 2050, BEVs could produce more GHG emissions than HFCBEVs by 225% per km of travel.

Common but differentiated? Policymakers’ priorities of social acceptance for expanding hydrogen refueling stations in Japan and Korea

Improving social acceptance of hydrogen refueling stations (HRSs) involves prioritizing several key factors. Specifically, developing a robust infrastructure of HRSs is critical for implementing hydrogen fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs). However, the expansion of HRSs is primarily restricted by the social acceptance of hydrogen-based technologies. Therefore, here, we assessed the perceptions of policymakers regarding the social acceptance of HRSs in Japan and South Korea, where policymakers recognize the vitality of acceptance among residents for advancing FCEV adoption and the importance of market acceptance and sociopolitical acceptance. Japanese experts contend that corporate-level financial feasibility is crucial for achieving social acceptance, whereas South Korean experts prioritize benefit sharing for gaining individual-level acceptance. These insights highlight both common and differentiated factors related to the social acceptance of FCEVs, thereby informing policies on alternative fuel sources to facilitate the broader adoption of HRSs not only in Japan and Korea but also worldwide.

Assurance of Iintegrity of Composite Pressure Vessels by AE Testing Using Remaining Life Indicator

Composite overpressure vessels (COPVs) are utilized in fuel cell vehicles (FCVs). The remaining life of COPVs decreases with repeated fillings. To indicate this decrease in remaining life, a remaining life indicator is embedded in the vessels. When the remaining life decreases, the indicator fractures before the structural components do. This allows for early detection, signalling the critical life of the vessel. Specifically, the indicator is designed to fracture before the carbon fiber, ensuring the vessel's strength. This fracture is then detected by AE (Acoustic Emission) testing, enabling us to determine the vessel's remaining life. In this study, we embedded the indicator in coupon specimens and conducted a preliminary study to assess the feasibility of our proposed method. As the indicator, we used a carbon fiber with a slightly smaller fracture stress compared to the carbon fiber comprising the vessels. Three types of coupon specimens with different amounts of indicator were prepared, and tensile tests were conducted. As a result, the fracture stress was not affected by the incorporation of the indicator, and the indicator's failure did not induce the fracture of the original CFRP (Carbon Fiber Reinforced Plastic). These results indicate that the integrity of COPVs can be ensured by incorporating the indicator and monitoring the fracture of these materials using AE testing.

Aerodynamic design of two-stage centrifugal compressor for vehicle hydrogen fuel cell

Abstract The on-board hydrogen fuel cell is a power generation device that converts the chemical energy of hydrogen and oxygen directly into electrical energy. The centrifugal compressor mainly provides oxygen for the cathode of the fuel cell system. With the rapid development of the hydrogen fuel cell industry, the key components of the air compressor field are also developing rapidly. In the technical route, most companies launched two-stage compression centrifugal air compressors in response to the increasing power of the product development trend. The newly developed hydrogen fuel cell system power has reached above 120kW to meet the needs of heavy trucks and other applications. Both the flow rate and pressure ratio of the air compressor are required to increase accordingly. Based on the reduction of parasitic power, the optimal efficiency at the working point of the two-stage centrifugal air compressor is taken as the design goal, from one-dimensional aerodynamic calculation to two-dimensional flow channel design. Finally, the feasibility and accuracy of the aerodynamic design are verified based on key parameters such as pressure ratio, flow rate, and efficiency of the final stage through CFD flow field simulation and test data comparison. The results show that the flow rate is consistent with the calculated flow field, and the maximum error of pressure ratio and efficiency is less than 2%, which meets the target requirements. The research results can provide a research and development basis for designing high-performance centrifugal air compressors for fuel cell vehicles.

Based on the Fuel Cell Stack Vibration Test and Evaluation Method under the Actual Operation Scenario of Vehicles

Abstract Based on the application scenario of fuel cell vehicle, a test and evaluation method of bench vibration of fuel cell stack based on actual operation requirements is proposed in this paper. Firstly, the application requirements of logistics vehicles are analyzed, and the impact of vibration and shock on fuel cell piles under different road conditions is studied. Secondly, based on the condition of the proportion of the road used by the logistics vehicle, based on the principle of user correlation and other damage, a bench vibration test method based on the use scenario of the logistics vehicle is proposed. The research shows that the fuel cell stack has the maximum vibration frequency at 50hz, and there is basically no vibration frequency above 200HZ.