Freshwater Fraction Research Articles

Seasonal Evolution of Ocean Heat Supply and Freshwater Discharge From a Rapidly Retreating Tidewater Glacier: Jorge Montt, Patagonia

AbstractProglacial fjords are critical conduits for the exchange of heat and freshwater between the ocean and land ice, and their dynamics heavily modulate the rate of retreat of tidewater glaciers. Here the magnitude, spatial structure, and seasonal evolution of the ocean forcing on the proglacial fjord off a rapidly retreating glacier (Jorge Montt, Patagonia) are characterized using data from multiple shipboard surveys from 2010 to 2016, a multiyear mooring array, and a weather station. The melting of the glacier is forced by relatively warm (8–11°C) waters entering the fjord over a shallow (45 m deep) sill ≈20 km from the terminus. This warm subsurface water is renewed every summer from the surface layer of Gulf of Penas., is transported along the 100‐km long Baker Channel, and reaches the proglacial fjord in the late austral summer to early fall, where it remains relatively warm until late austral spring. Analysis of the freshwater fractions in the fjord reveals that the total freshwater content has a strong seasonal signal with maximum fractional values in the summer, mostly explained by the seasonality of subglacial discharge from the glacier. The submarine melting fraction has no strong seasonal signal, but is a first‐order contributor to the freshwater content of the fjord in winter. This seasonal evolution is consistent with idealized theories of meltwater production, and suggests that the seasonal supply of heat is critical to sustain a high mean temperature for melting, but does not directly control the melting rate variability.

Empirical radio propagation model for DTV applied to non-homogeneous paths and different climates using machine learning techniques.

The establishment and improvement of transmission systems rely on models that take into account, (among other factors), the geographical features of the region, as these can lead to signal degradation. This is particularly important in Brazil, where there is a great diversity of scenery and climates. This article proposes an outdoor empirical radio propagation model for Ultra High Frequency (UHF) band, that estimates received power values that can be applied to non-homogeneous paths and different climates, this last being of an innovative character for the UHF band. Different artificial intelligence techniques were chosen on a theoretical and computational basis and made it possible to introduce, organize and describe quantitative and qualitative data quickly and efficiently, and thus determine the received power in a wide range of settings and climates. The proposed model was applied to a city in the Amazon region with heterogeneous paths, wooded urban areas and fractions of freshwater among other factors. Measurement campaigns were conducted to obtain data signals from two digital TV stations in the metropolitan area of the city of Belém, in the State of Pará, to design, compare and validate the model. The results are consistent since the model shows a clear difference between the two seasons of the studied year and small RMS errors in all the cases studied.

Freshwater Contributions and Nitrogen Sources in a South Texas Estuarine Ecosystem: a Time-Integrated Perspective from Stable Isotopic Ratios in the Eastern Oyster (Crassostrea virginica)

Freshwater inflows to Texas estuaries vary widely due to regional climate fluctuations and are being substantially altered by human activities. The natural abundance stable isotope ratios of carbon and nitrogen in oyster adductor muscle were used to acquire a time-integrated view of freshwater and nitrogen contributions to the Mission-Aransas National Estuarine Research Reserve in South Texas. The study objective was to determine the influence of inputs from the San Antonio and Guadalupe rivers, which deliver approximately 1.6 km3 of water to the mid-Texas coastal region annually. A transect of sampling stations extending from the head of San Antonio Bay (northeast of the Reserve boundary) to the Aransas Pass ship channel (roughly 70 km to the southwest) was visited multiple times between 2009 and 2011. Carbon isotopic values increased from approximately −25 to −17‰ while δ15N values decreased from approximately +16 to +10‰ between the bay and ship channel. This range of carbon isotope values translates into time-integrated freshwater fractions as high as 0.8 (1 = 100% fresh) at the most inland sampling station to freshwater fractions around zero approaching the Gulf of Mexico. Contributions from the San Antonio and Guadalupe rivers to waters of the reserve vary between wet and dry years, but overall, the data suggest that these rivers are persistent and substantial sources of fresh water and nitrogen to the reserve. This study emphasizes the importance of connectivity and lateral exchanges among bays/lagoons when considering potential sources of fresh water and nitrogen that control ecosystem structure and function.

Inorganic carbon in a high latitude estuary-fjord system in Canada’s eastern Arctic

Rapidly changing conditions in the Arctic can have a significant impact on biogeochemical cycles and can be particularly important in high latitude estuary-fjord systems with abundant and diverse freshwater sources. This study provides a first look into the inorganic carbon system and its relation to freshwater sources in Cumberland Sound in the east coast of Baffin Island, Nunavut, Canada. These data contribute to the very limited set of inorganic carbon measurements in high latitude estuary-fjord systems. During the ice-free conditions in August 2011, the meteoric freshwater fractions (MW) in the upper 40 m ranged from 11 to 21% and no sea ice melt (SIM) was present in the Sound. Surface waters were undersaturated with pCO2 (260 and 300 μatm), and DIC and TA ranged between 1779 and 1966 μmol DIC kg−1, and 1922 and 2140 μmol TA kg−1, respectively. Aragonite saturation (ΩAr) state ranged from 1.9 in the surface to 1.4 in the subsurface waters. Data show decreasing TA and ΩAr with increasing MW fraction and suggest that Cumberland Sound waters would become aragonite undersaturated (ΩAr < 1) at MW = 0.37 (95% CI: 0.29 to 0.56). Estimated local δ18O (−19.2‰) and TA (174 μmol TA kg−1) end-members indicate MW was most likely a mixture of river water and glacial melt. In August 2012, MW fractions at the surface were between 8 and 11.5%, and SIM between 7 and 23%. Significant interannual variability of summertime SIM could potentially result in ΩAr undersaturation.

Variations in the proportions of melted sea ice and runoff in surface waters of the Chukchi Sea: A retrospective analysis, 1990–2012, and analysis of the implications of melted sea ice in an under-ice bloom

Retrospective analysis of apparent freshwater isotopic end-members through use of salinity–δ18O mixing lines for 15 research cruises from 1990 to 2012 indicates that the freshwater contributed by melted seasonal sea ice does not directly reflect the large change in seasonal sea ice extent in the Chukchi Sea observed over the past several decades. Instead the freshwater that appears to be contributed by melting sea ice relative to runoff is highly dependent upon cruise track (e.g. proximity to runoff) and sampling capabilities in sea ice (icebreakers sample waters with less melted sea ice). Although under certain circumstances, including later seasonal sampling and recurrent cruise tracks between years, increased melted sea ice in surface waters can be readily detected. This suggests a more ephemeral influence of melted sea ice on ecosystem properties despite the significant decadal changes in sea ice extent. As a recent case study, the freshwater component present in waters within an under-ice bloom in the Chukchi Sea reported by Arrigo et al. (2012), included a significant fraction (~10% or more) of freshwater, primarily from melted sea ice. These results suggest that this under-ice bloom, which extended more than 60km under solid ice still might be reasonably interpreted as being part of a continuum with other ice melt-associated blooms and not independent of sea ice retreat and dissolution.

Liquid desiccant dehumidification and regeneration process to meet cooling and freshwater needs of desert greenhouses

Agriculture accounts for ~70% of freshwater usage worldwide. Seawater desalination alone cannot meet the growing needs for irrigation and food production, particularly in hot, desert environments. Greenhouse cultivation of high-value crops uses just a fraction of freshwater per unit of food produced when compared with open field cultivation. However, desert greenhouse producers face three main challenges: freshwater supply, plant nutrient supply, and cooling of the greenhouse. The common practice of evaporative cooling for greenhouses consumes large amounts of fresh water. In Saudi Arabia, the most common greenhouse cooling schemes are fresh water-based evaporative cooling, often using fossil groundwater or energy-intensive desalinated water, and traditional refrigeration-based direct expansion cooling, largely powered by the burning of fossil fuels. The coastal deserts have ambient conditions that are seasonally too humid to support adequate evaporative cooling, necessitating additional energy consumption in the dehumidification process of refrigeration-based cooling. This project evaluates the use of a combined-system liquid desiccant dehumidifier and membrane distillation unit that can meet the dual needs of cooling and freshwater supply for a greenhouse in a hot and humid environment.

A numerical study of circulation in the Gulf of Riga, Baltic Sea. Part II: Mesoscale features and freshwater transport pathways

A regional eddy-resolving model is developed to study mesoscale processes in the Gulf of Riga in relation to river runoff, saltwater inflow, and atmospheric forcing. A number of mesoscale phenomena are simulated and discussed, such as meandering of coastal buoyant plume/current of riverine waters and formation and splitting of cyclonic eddies related to the saltwater inflow. It is shown that the Daugava River discharge forms a surface-advected plume (Yankovsky and Chapman, 1997) consisting of an anticyclonic bulge and coastal buoyant jet. In case of no saltwater inflow and no atmospheric forcing, the river runoff is distributed between the growing anticyclonic bulge and the coastal current in proportion of about 7:6. In the summer season, a substantial fraction of freshwater from the anticyclonic bulge can be transported to the north by the anticyclonic whole-basin circulation gyre leading to the bimodal transport pathways of the Daugava River plume.

Retention and fate of groundwater-borne nitrogen in a coastal bay (Kinvara Bay, Western Ireland) during summer

The magnitude of submarine groundwater discharge (SGD) and its contribution to nitrogen biogeochemistry in a small embayment in the Western Coast of Ireland subject to occasional hypoxia were investigated during summer. Time series (24 h) of 222Rn, NO3−, NO2−, NH4+, dissolved reactive silicate (DRSi) and salinity (June 2010, July and September 2011 and July 2013), total dissolved phosphorus (TDP) (September 2011 and July 2013) and dissolved organic nitrogen (DON) (July 2013) were measured at the mouth of the bay and coupled with relevant sediment–water fluxes and input loadings to derive nutrient budgets. In-situ activity ratios of the naturally occurring radium isotopes 224Ra and 223Ra were employed in parallel to the freshwater fraction method to determine the timescale of freshwater retention in the system. Based on 222Rn mass balances (n = 4), the mean groundwater (±SE) discharge into Kinvara Bay was 10.4 ± 6.3×104 m3 days−1, delivering average loads of 376 ± 67 kg Si day−1 (as DRSi), 1.6 ± 0.2 kg P day−1 (as TDP) and ~280 kg N day−1 of dissolved nitrogen (272 ± 49 DIN, essentially as NO3−, and 8.2 ± 1.6 DON), which correspond to ~98.8, 49.1 and ~93.5 % of total allochthonous nutrient inputs respectively. Expressed on an areal basis and annual scale the exogenous N summer loading of Kinvara is equivalent to 25.9 g N m−2 year−1. Our biogeochemical budgets indicate that tight benthic-pelagic coupling contributes to the very high retention levels of N within the bay with subtidal sediments acting as a link in the internal N cycle via DNRA, while ~18 % of the exogenous N load is removed by benthic denitrification. Rapid cycling of DON into bioavailable forms of N within the timescale of freshwater retention in the system (~7 days) contributes ~50 % to local biological N fixation. Nutrient availability ratios are N:P ~173 and Si:P ~503, indicating that primary production is P-limited while the carbon yield (~3.01 × 105 mol C day−1, or ~0.313 kg C m−2 year−1) suggests the bay is eutrophic during the summer. SGD-borne Nitrogen loading is therefore the major driver of eutrophication in Kinvara Bay. Our biogeochemical characterization is consistent with the observed phytoplankton community composition and species succession and justifies the local observation of HAB’s. In addition, the relative magnitude of DNRA-promoted N retention compared to N removal by denitrification, coupled with seasonal hypoxia, suggests that the system is advanced in the chronological sequence of eutrophication effects on shallow coastal systems.

Long-Term Effect of Seawater on Sulfate Reduction in Wastewater Treatment

Abstract In sulfate-rich saline wastewater, biological sulfate reduction can occur spontaneously or applied beneficially for its treatment. Although application of sulfate-reducing bacteria (SRB) on saline domestic wastewater, obtained by seawater-based toilet flushing for instance has been suggested repeatedly, no study on the effect of applicability in the complete range of seawater concentration has been performed (salinity range of 0–3.5% and sulfate concentration of 0–2500 mg/L). The present article examines the long-term effect of seawater on biological sulfate reduction using three sequencing batch reactors fed with different volumetric fractions of seawater and freshwater. To evaluate this effect, the effluent quality, sulfate reduction rate, and microbial population in the reactors were investigated. The biomass-specific biological sulfate reduction rate decreased significantly (∼45%) when salinity increased from 0.7% to 3.5%, while total organics removal remained unaffected. Differences in micro...

Effect of glacial drainage water on the CO2 system and ocean acidification state in an Arctic tidewater‐glacier fjord during two contrasting years

AbstractIn order to investigate the effect of glacial water on the CO2 system in the fjord, we studied the variability of the total alkalinity (AT), total dissolved inorganic carbon (CT), dissolved inorganic nutrients, oxygen isotopic ratio (δ18O), and freshwater fractions from the glacier front to the outer Tempelfjorden on Spitsbergen in winter 2012 (January, March, and April) and 2013 (April) and summer/fall 2013 (September). The two contrasting years clearly showed that the influence of freshwater, mixing, and haline convection affected the chemical and physical characteristics of the fjord. The seasonal variability showed the lowest calcium carbonate saturation state (Ω) and pH values in March 2012 coinciding with the highest freshwater fractions. The highest Ω and pH were found in September 2013, mostly due to CO2 uptake during primary production. Overall, we found that increased freshwater supply decreased Ω, pH, and AT. On the other hand, we observed higher AT relative to salinity in the freshwater end‐member in the mild and rainy winter of 2012 (1142 μmol kg−1) compared to AT in 2013 (526 μmol kg−1). Observations of calcite and dolomite crystals in the glacial ice suggested supply of carbonate‐rich glacial drainage water to the fjord. This implies that winters with a large amount of glacial drainage water partly provide a lessening of further ocean acidification, which will also affect the air‐sea CO2 exchange.

A Comparison of Bulk Estuarine Turnover Timescales to Particle Tracking Timescales Using a Model of the Yaquina Bay Estuary

The ability to determine a bulk estuarine turnover timescale that is well defined under realistic conditions is in high demand for estuarine research and management. We compare how turnover timescales vary with tidal and river forcing from idealized forcing scenarios using a three-dimensional circulation model of the Yaquina Bay estuary in order to understand the limitations and benefits of different timescale methods for future application. Using model results, we compare bulk formula approaches—the tidal prism method, freshwater fraction method, and a relatively new estuarine timescale calculation method based on the total exchange flow (TEF)—to directly calculated timescales from particle tracking in order to assess the utility of the bulk formula timescales. All of the timescales calculated had similar magnitudes during high river discharge but varied significantly at low discharge and had different dependences on tidal amplitude. Even in the application of a single estuary-averaged timescale, we did not find that any of the bulk timescales described the estuary over a realistic range of tidal and river discharge forcing. During high discharge, the Yaquina Bay timescale is on the order of 2–5 tidal cycles based on the particle tracking analysis, but during low discharge, the turnover time varies across methods and spatial considerations appear to be more important.

Freshwater fluxes in the Weddell Gyre: results from δ18O.

Full-depth measurements of δ(18)O from 2008 to 2010 enclosing the Weddell Gyre in the Southern Ocean are used to investigate the regional freshwater budget. Using complementary salinity, nutrients and oxygen data, a four-component mass balance was applied to quantify the relative contributions of meteoric water (precipitation/glacial input), sea-ice melt and saline (oceanic) sources. Combination of freshwater fractions with velocity fields derived from a box inverse analysis enabled the estimation of gyre-scale budgets of both freshwater types, with deep water exports found to dominate the budget. Surface net sea-ice melt and meteoric contributions reach 1.8% and 3.2%, respectively, influenced by the summer sampling period, and -1.7% and +1.7% at depth, indicative of a dominance of sea-ice production over melt and a sizable contribution of shelf waters to deep water mass formation. A net meteoric water export of approximately 37 mSv is determined, commensurate with local estimates of ice sheet outflow and precipitation, and the Weddell Gyre is estimated to be a region of net sea-ice production. These results constitute the first synoptic benchmarking of sea-ice and meteoric exports from the Weddell Gyre, against which future change associated with an accelerating hydrological cycle, ocean climate change and evolving Antarctic glacial mass balance can be determined.

Patterns of River Influence and Connectivity Among Subbasins of Puget Sound, with Application to Bacterial and Nutrient Loading

Puget Sound is an estuarine inland sea fed by 14 major rivers and also strongly influenced by the nearby Fraser River. A comprehensive, particle-based reanalysis of an existing circulation model was used to map the area of influence of each of these rivers over a typical seasonal cycle. Each of the 131,000 particles released in the 15 rivers was associated with a freshwater volume, a nutrient load, and a fecal coliform load based on statistics from 10 years of Washington Department of Ecology monitoring data. Simple assumptions regarding mortality and nutrient utilization/export rates were used to estimate the decrease in bacterial and nutrient load as individual parcels of river water age. Reconstructions of basin-scale volume fluxes and salinities from the particle inventory provide consistency checks on the particle calculation, according to methods suitable for error analysis in a wide range of particle-based estuarine residence time studies. Results suggest that river contributions to total freshwater content in Puget Sound are highly nonlocal in spring and summer, with distant, large rivers (the Fraser and Skagit) accounting for a large fraction of total freshwater. However, bacterial mortality and nutrient export rates are relatively fast compared with transport timescales, and so significant loadings associated with major rivers are in most cases only seen close to river mouths. One notable exception is fecal coliform concentration in Bellingham Bay and Samish Bay, which lie north of Puget Sound proper; there, it appears that the Fraser River may rival local rivers (the Samish and Nooksack) as a pathogen source, with the much higher flow volume of the Fraser compensating for its remoteness.

Temporal variability of freshwater and pore water recirculation components of submarine groundwater discharges at Baffin Bay, Texas

Submarine groundwater discharges (SGDs) are an important source of freshwater as well as nutrients and other chemicals to bays and estuaries. SGDs are particularly important for coastal bodies in arid and semi-arid regions that are not fed by perennial streams. The Baffin Bay, TX is a shallow coastal water body that is weakly connected to the Gulf of Mexico and has no major rivers or streams draining into it. A year-long submarine groundwater discharge measurement study was carried out at the Loyola Beach of the Baffin Bay during the months of July 2005–June 2006. A total of 23 synoptic SGD sampling events were carried out with most events collecting SGD data continuously over a period of 24 h at a 1-min temporal resolution using an ultrasonic seepage meter. The median SGD was noted to be 3.83 cm/d with an inter-quartile range (IQR) of 11.36 cm/d. Four sampling events had anomalously high SGD values (~27–48 cm/d) which are hypothesized to be due to the geologic heterogeneity of the sea bed and meteorological effects. Eight of the 23 sampling events had a negative average SGD flux indicating landward flow. The short-term diurnal variability of SGD was comparable or sometimes higher than the longer-term and between-events variability. No long-term trend could be inferred. In the short-term, SGD measurements showed considerable persistence and the effective sample size analysis indicated each sampling event (consisting of over 1,000 samples) yielded only a handful of statistically independent measurements of SGD. The measured SGD values exhibited both negative (hydraulically controlled) and positive (wave set-up controlled) correlations with the bay water levels. Marine controls appeared to be the most significant SGD drivers and are in turn controlled by prevailing aeolian forcings. The salinity of the SGDs were estimated from measured sonic velocities and used in conjunction with the end-member mixing models to estimate fresh (meteoric) and re-circulated pore-water fractions. The freshwater fraction of the SGD was estimated to vary between nearly 4 and 89 % with a median value of 9.96 % and an IQR of 7.16 %. Three events were noted to have abnormally high freshwater fractions (~28, 50 and 84 %) which are likely artifacts caused by bay water freshening from rainfall and plausible thermal expansion. The meteoric and pore-water partitioning was sensitive to the assumed end-member concentrations. This study provides preliminary estimates for SGDs along the South Texas coast line and is useful for calibrating groundwater flow models and understanding the relative importance of terrestrial and marine controls on SGD. However, the heterogeneous nature of the sedimentary geology of the Texas Gulf Coast implies the SGD fluxes are likely to exhibit considerable spatial variation that has not been characterized yet. Therefore, the study provides useful insights for such future data collection and monitoring activities. The measured SGD values at Baffin Bay, TX are comparable to those reported at other parts of the Gulf of Mexico.

Summertime freshwater fractions in the surface water of the western Arctic Ocean evaluated from total alkalinity

As a quasi-conservative tracer, measures of total alkalinity (TA) can be utilized to trace the relative fractions of freshwater and seawater. In this study, based on the TA and related data collected during the third Chinese National Arctic Research Expedition (July—September 2008, 3rd CHINARE-Arctic) and the fourth Chinese National Arctic Research Expedition (July— September 2010, 4th CHINARE-Arctic), fractions of sea-ice meltwater, river runoff, and seawater within the surface water of the western Arctic Ocean were determined using salinity and TA relationships. The largest fraction of sea-ice meltwater was found around 75°N within the Canada Basin during both surveys, which is located at the ice edge. Generally, it was found that the frac- tion of river runoff was less than that of sea-ice meltwater. The river runoff, composed mainly of contributions from the Yukon River carried by Bering inflow water and the Mackenzie River, was influenced by the currents, leading to two peak areas of its fraction. Our results show that the dilution effect of freshwater carried by Bering inflow water during the 3rd CHINARE-Arctic in 2008 expedition period may be stronger than that during the 4th CHINARE-Arctic in 2010 expedition period. The peak area of sea-ice meltwater fraction during the 4th CHINARE-Arctic was different from that of the 3rd CHINARE-Arctic, corresponding to their sea-ice condition.

Residence time of water in the Mondego estuary (Portugal)

The residence time of water is widely used as an indicator of how long a substance will remain in an estuary, a harbour, or a lagoon, and it is used to enable comparisons among different water bodies. In this work, the residence time in the Mondego Estuary, Portugal, is calculated by using two methodologies: the first one is based on field data and a freshwater fraction model, and the second one is based on a Lagrangian transport model. The Lagrangian model is coupled to a two-dimensional hydrodynamic numerical model that solves the depth-averaged advection and diffusion equations. Boundary conditions are provided by the Portuguese Coastal Operational Model, downscaled by using four nested domains with increasing resolution from the large to the local scale. The spatial variation of the residence time is characterized by subdividing the Mondego Estuary into boxes. The observed average salinity for each box is applied to the freshwater fraction model. With the Lagrangian model, boxes are filled with tracers and the path of the particles passing through them is quantified. The overall results of the two methodologies are similar, with a value of the residence time varying over the year between 1 and 12 days computed with the Lagrangian transport model and 2 and 9 days with the freshwater fraction model. Several scenarios were built by applying the Lagrangian transport model to investigate the history of water renewal and the influence of freshwater inflows and geomorphologic factors on the residence time. The overall results indicate that freshwater inflow is the main factor influencing the residence time. The analysis of the history of the water renewal was carried out by calculating the water exchange among boxes inside the estuary, pointing to the river flow as the main factor contributing to the water renewal of boxes.

Spatio-Temporal Variation of Flushing Time in the Sumjin River Estuary

Flushing is a very complicated process in estuarine environments. In order to examine the effects of tidal amplitude, river discharge, and stratification on the spatially varying flushing time of the Sumjin River Estuary (SRE), 24 longitudinal salinity transects were obtained during spring and neap tides from August 2004 to April 2007. The widely accepted freshwater fraction method has been used to calculate the flushing time for multiple estuarine segments using a spatially varying freshwater fraction. The effects of tidal amplitude, river discharge, and stratification on estuarine flushing were identified reasonably well by the spatially varying time scale. The flushing time appears to be close to the semidiurnal (M2) tidal period during spring tide, but it is twice as long during a neap tide near the mouth. The flushing time increases in the central regions with a decrease in the tidal amplitudes and reduces in the inner-most regions owing to the strong influence of gravitational circulation. A linear function negatively relates estuarine flushing to the tidal amplitudes near the mouth of the estuary, whereas a power-law function relates estuarine flushing to the freshwater inflow near the head. In addition, strong stratification induced by freshwater discharge and small tidal amplitude exerts dominant control to reduce the estuarine flushing in the central and upper regions of the estuary during a neap tide.

On the Transport of Buoyant Coastal Plumes

Abstract The role of discharge conditions and shelf geometry on the transport of coastal plumes is studied with a fully nonlinear, primitive equation hydrodynamic model. The physical setting is an estuarine channel with a small discharge Rossby number. By simulating different discharge magnitudes, buoyant plumes are shown to be succinctly described by a simple coastal front model. Three results emerge from the model analysis. First, the plume transport is given by T = γ0(g′ph2/2f ), where γ0 is a parameter dependent on the ratio of the front and the plume widths, g′p is the plume reduced gravity, h is the plume maximum depth, and f is the Coriolis parameter. Second, this model links the plume transport directly to upstream river conditions with T = γQr, where Qr is the river outflow and γ is a parameter that relates to entrainment, the geometry of the plume front and shelf slope, and the fraction of freshwater carried downshelf. Third, these equations reduce to analytic results previously established for special cases, providing useful formulas to estimate the plume transport from hydrographic and river discharge observations.

Estimation of submarine groundwater discharge from bulk ground electrical conductivity measurements

The utility of bulk ground conductivity (BGC) measurements in the estimation of submarine groundwater discharge (SGD) was investigated at four sites covering a range of hydrogeological settings, namely Cockburn Sound (Australia); Shelter Island (USA); Ubatuba Bay (Brazil) and Flic‐en‐Flac Bay (Mauritius). At each of the sites, BGC was surveyed in the intertidal zone, and seepage meters were used for direct measurements of SGD flow rates. In the presence of detectable salinity gradients in the sediment, a negative correlation between SGD and BGC was recorded. The correlation is site‐specific and is dependent on both the type of sediment and the mixing processes. For example, at Shelter Island the maximum mean flow rates were 65 cm d−1 at a BGC of ∼0 mS cm−1 while at Mauritius maximum mean flow rates were 364 cm d−1 at a BGC of ∼0 mS cm−1. BGC measurements are used to estimate SGD over a large scale, and to separate its fresh and saline components. Extrapolating BGC measurements throughout the study sites yields a total discharge of 2.91, 1.59, 7.16, and 25.4 103 m3 d−1 km−1 of shoreline with a freshwater fraction of 41, 24, 29, and 63% at Cockburn Sound, Shelter Island, Ubatuba Bay, and Flic‐en‐Flac Bay respectively. The results demonstrate that ground conductivity is a useful tracer to survey and separate freshwater and recirculated seawater component of SGD. The presented investigation is a subset within a series of experiments designed to compare different methods to investigate SGD co‐organized and carried out by SCOR, LOICZ, IOC and IAEA.

Assessment of terrestrial factors controlling the submarine groundwater discharge in water shortage and highly deformed Island of Taiwan, Western Pacific Ocean

Submarine groundwater discharge (SGD) from seventeen sites was investigated on the coasts around Taiwan in order to verify its occurrences and to understand its characteristics. The fresh water fraction (FWF) in most pore water samples, except the Fangsan sampling site, range from 0 to 59% based on the salinity evidence. The relative low FWF evidence implies that the recirculated saline groundwater discharge (RSGD) is more important than the submarine fresh groundwater discharge (SFGD) in most sampling sites. Fangsan, which is located at the southwestern coast of Taiwan, has nearly 100% FWF in SGD. Evaluation of the relationship between the magnitude of SGD flux and geological type of the Taiwanese coast proves to be difficult because complex hydrological factors affect the SGD, rather than the coastal topography. According to the hydrological evidence, the modeled-SGD discharge is enhanced by high precipitation but is generally reduced by severe groundwater pumping. In addition, modeled-SGD has an inverse relationship with river base flow, indicating the river effect. The almost fresh SGD with flow rates ranged from 34 to 42 m/year at Fangsan deserves attention because a seven-year-long groundwater budget calculation implies that the aquifer could not supply so much fresh SGD over a large area. This suggests that a significant amount of fresh water SGD at Fangsan is derived from a point source via a fault passage, considering its geological background. Although the rudimentary salinity and stable isotope results indicate that RSGD plays an important role in SGD, the type of submarine spring discharge via fault zones may very well be the most prominent in highly deformed areas elsewhere in the world, too.