FPGA-based Hardware Accelerator Research Articles

Hardware Acceleration for High-Volume Operations of CRYSTALS-Kyber and CRYSTALS-Dilithium

Many high-demand digital services need to perform several cryptographic operations, such as key exchange or security credentialing, in a concise amount of time. In turn, the security of some of these cryptographic schemes is threatened by advances in quantum computing, as quantum computer could break their security in the near future. Post-quantum cryptography (PQC) is an emerging field that studies cryptographic algorithms that resist such attacks. The National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) has selected the CRYSTALS-Kyber Key Encapsulation Mechanism and the CRYSTALS-Dilithium Digital Signature algorithm as primary PQC standards. In this article, we present field-programmable gate array (FPGA)-based hardware accelerators for high-volume operations of both schemes. We apply high-level synthesis (HLS) for hardware optimization, leveraging a batch processing approach to maximize the memory throughput and applying custom HLS logic to specific algorithmic components. Using reconfigurable FPGAs, we show that our hardware accelerators achieve speedups between 3 \(\times\) and 9 \(\times\) over software baseline implementations, even over ones leveraging CPU vector architectures. Furthermore, the methods used in this study can also be extended to the new CRYSTALS-based NIST FIPS drafts, ML-KEM and ML-DSA, with similar acceleration results.

An FPGA-based hardware accelerator supporting sensitive sequence homology filtering with profile hidden Markov models

BackgroundSequence alignment lies at the heart of genome sequence annotation. While the BLAST suite of alignment tools has long held an important role in alignment-based sequence database search, greater sensitivity is achieved through the use of profile hidden Markov models (pHMMs). Here, we describe an FPGA hardware accelerator, called HAVAC, that targets a key bottleneck step (SSV) in the analysis pipeline of the popular pHMM alignment tool, HMMER.ResultsThe HAVAC kernel calculates the SSV matrix at 1739 GCUPS on a ∼\\documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \\usepackage{amsmath} \\usepackage{wasysym} \\usepackage{amsfonts} \\usepackage{amssymb} \\usepackage{amsbsy} \\usepackage{mathrsfs} \\usepackage{upgreek} \\setlength{\\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \\begin{document}$$\\sim$$\\end{document} $3000 Xilinx Alveo U50 FPGA accelerator card, ∼\\documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \\usepackage{amsmath} \\usepackage{wasysym} \\usepackage{amsfonts} \\usepackage{amssymb} \\usepackage{amsbsy} \\usepackage{mathrsfs} \\usepackage{upgreek} \\setlength{\\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \\begin{document}$$\\sim$$\\end{document} 227× faster than the optimized SSV implementation in nhmmer. Accounting for PCI-e data transfer data processing, HAVAC is 65× faster than nhmmer’s SSV with one thread and 35× faster than nhmmer with four threads, and uses ∼\\documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \\usepackage{amsmath} \\usepackage{wasysym} \\usepackage{amsfonts} \\usepackage{amssymb} \\usepackage{amsbsy} \\usepackage{mathrsfs} \\usepackage{upgreek} \\setlength{\\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \\begin{document}$$\\sim$$\\end{document} 31% the energy of a traditional high end Intel CPU.ConclusionsHAVAC demonstrates the potential offered by FPGA hardware accelerators to produce dramatic speed gains in sequence annotation and related bioinformatics applications. Because these computations are performed on a co-processor, the host CPU remains free to simultaneously compute other aspects of the analysis pipeline.

FPGA-based hardware accelerator for SIC in uplink NOMA networks

FPGA-based hardware accelerator for SIC in uplink NOMA networks

Systematic analysis of FPGA-based hardware accelerators for convolutional neural networks

In the modern era, machine learning stands as a pivotal component of artificial intelligence, exerting a profound impact on various domains. This article delineates a methodology for designing and applying Field Programmable Gate Array (FPGA) based hardware accelerators for convolutional neural networks (CNNs). Initially, this paper introduces CNNs, a subset of deep learning techniques, and underscore their pivotal role in artificial intelligence, spanning domains such as image recognition, speech processing, and natural language understanding. Subsequently, we delve into the intricacies of FPGA, an adaptable logic device characterized by high integration and versatility, elucidating our approach to creating a hardware accelerator tailored for CNNs on the FPGA platform. To enhance computational efficiency, we employ technical strategies like dual cache structures, loop unrolling, and loop tiling for accelerating the convolutional layers. Finally, through empirical experiments employing YOLOv2, and validate the efficacy and superiority of our designed hardware accelerator model. This paper anticipates that in the forthcoming years, the methodology and research into FPGA-based CNN hardware accelerators will yield even more substantial contributions, propelling the advancement and widespread adoption of deep learning technology.

Integrating FPGA-based hardware acceleration with relational databases

The explosion of data over the last decades puts significant strain on the computational capacity of the central processing unit (CPU), challenging online analytical processing (OLAP). While previous studies have shown the potential of using Field Programmable Gate Arrays (FPGAs) in database systems, integrating FPGA-based hardware acceleration with relational databases remains challenging because of the complex nature of relational database operations and the need for specialized FPGA programming skills. Additionally, there are significant challenges related to optimizing FPGA-based acceleration for specific database workloads, ensuring data consistency and reliability, and integrating FPGA-based hardware acceleration with existing database infrastructure. In this study, we proposed a novel end-to-end FPGA-based acceleration system that supports native SQL statements and storage engine. We defined a callback process to reload the database query logic and customize the scanning method for database queries. Through middleware process development, we optimized offloading efficiency on PCIe bus by scheduling data transmission and computation in a pipeline workflow. Additionally, we designed a novel five-stage FPGA microarchitecture module that achieves optimal clock frequency, further enhancing offloading efficiency. Results from systematic evaluations indicate that our solution allows a single FPGA card to perform as well as 8 CPU query processes, while reducing CPU load by 34%. Compared to using 4 CPU cores, our FPGA-based acceleration system reduces query latency by 1.7 times without increasing CPU load. Furthermore, our proposed solution achieves 2.1 times computation speedup for data filtering compared with the software baseline in a single core environment. Overall, our work presents a valuable end-to-end hardware acceleration system for OLAP databases.

FPGA Implementation of Complex-Valued Neural Network for Polar-Represented Image Classification

This proposed research explores a novel approach to image classification by deploying a complex-valued neural network (CVNN) on a Field-Programmable Gate Array (FPGA), specifically for classifying 2D images transformed into polar form. The aim of this research is to address the limitations of existing neural network models in terms of energy and resource efficiency, by exploring the potential of FPGA-based hardware acceleration in conjunction with advanced neural network architectures like CVNNs. The methodological innovation of this research lies in the Cartesian to polar transformation of 2D images, effectively reducing the input data volume required for neural network processing. Subsequent efforts focused on constructing a CVNN model optimized for FPGA implementation, emphasizing the enhancement of computational efficiency and overall performance. The experimental findings provide empirical evidence supporting the efficacy of the image classification system developed in this study. One of the developed models, CVNN_128, achieves an accuracy of 88.3% with an inference time of just 1.6 ms and a power consumption of 4.66 mW for the classification of the MNIST test dataset, which consists of 10,000 frames. While there is a slight concession in accuracy compared to recent FPGA implementations that achieve 94.43%, our model significantly excels in classification speed and power efficiency—surpassing existing models by more than a factor of 100. In conclusion, this paper demonstrates the substantial advantages of the FPGA implementation of CVNNs for image classification tasks, particularly in scenarios where speed, resource, and power consumption are critical.

Efficient lightweight cryptography for resource-constrained WSN nodes

In Wireless Sensor Networks (WSN), where resources are scarce, lightweight cryptography is crucial and difficult. The Constrained Application Protocol (CoAP), Field-Programmable Gate Array (FPGA) technology, and a modified RC5 algorithm are used in this study to achieve efficient encryption for WSN nodes. WSN are essential for monitoring temperature, humidity, vibrations, and seismic activity. However, processing capacity, memory, and energy constraints make data security difficult in these networks. CoAP, FPGA, and a modified RC5 algorithm provide security, computational load reduction, and energy efficiency in resource-limited WSN. This research is crucial because it creates cryptographic mechanisms that accommodate WSN unique needs. By protecting data integrity and confidentiality, these mechanisms ensure data transmission security and privacy. Data security and efficiency in WSN require innovative cryptographic, FPGA-based hardware acceleration, and protocol optimization solutions. These methods could improve these vital sensing networks. This research lays the foundation for protecting the accuracy and security of WSN node data collected and transmitted with limited resources while optimizing resource allocation.

An Efficient FPGA-Based Accelerator for Perceptual Weighting Filter in Speech Coding

In speech coding, denoising of the speech signal is essential as well as crucial. The filters for minimizing errors through denoising employ the autoregressive moving average (ARMA) approach, introducing higher computational complexity in speech coder design. This research work presents the design and implementation of an effective perceptual weighting filter (PWF) for speech coding. The high-level synthesis of the fixed-point PWF filter is optimized by multiple optimization techniques along with detailed design space exploration using the weighted sum (WS) method. To enhance the performance, an FPGA-based hardware accelerator is proposed using hardware/software (HW/SW) co-design in an embedded environment. Simulative analysis in Vivado HLS and final accelerator design in the Vitis IDE tool validate the proposed architecture by using real-time speech samples, demonstrating a 50% reduction in area and a 99% execution improvement. This makes it well-suited for use in modern speech codecs, enhancing the efficiency.

Resource-Efficient Optimization for FPGA-Based Convolution Accelerator

Convolution forms one of the most essential operations for the FPGA-based hardware accelerator. However, the existing designs often neglect the inherent architecture of FPGA, which puts forward an austere challenge on hardware resource. Even though some previous works have proposed approximate multipliers or convolution acceleration algorithms to deal with this issue, the inevitable accuracy loss and resource occupation easily lead to performance degradation. Toward this, we first propose two kinds of resource-efficient optimized accurate multipliers based on LUTs or carry chains. Then, targeting FPGA-based platforms, a generic multiply–accumulate structure is constructed by directly accumulating the partial products produced by our proposed optimized radix-4 Booth multipliers without intermediate multiplication and addition results. Experimental results demonstrate that our proposed multiplier achieves a maximum 51% look-up-table (LUT) reduction compared to the Vivado area-optimized multiplier IP. Furthermore, the convolutional process unit using the proposed structure achieves a 36% LUT reduction compared to existing methods. As case studies, the proposed method is applied to DCT transform, LeNet, and MobileNet-V3 to achieve hardware resource saving without loss of accuracy.

A streaming algorithm and hardware accelerator to estimate the empirical entropy of network flows

The empirical entropy is used in network traffic monitoring and classification to detect anomalous events and manage network resources. Computing the entropy of high-speed traffic in real time requires dedicated hardware, such as programmable switches and FPGA-based accelerators. While these devices can achieve high performance by exploiting the parallelism of the algorithm, they possess limited on-chip storage. Thus, designing algorithms that estimate the entropy of network traffic with low error and memory usage is challenging. In this paper, we present an entropy-estimation streaming algorithm that operates on large datasets with sublinear memory usage. We use sketches to estimate the frequency and cardinality of network flows during an observation interval. We only store the frequencies of the most frequent flows and use them to estimate the rest of the frequencies by assuming a power-law distribution. Our results show that, using real network traces with observation intervals of up to 50 million flows, we can estimate their empirical entropy with 0.69% mean relative error, using more than three orders of magnitude less memory than an exact entropy-computation method. We also present an FPGA-based hardware accelerator for the algorithm that can operate at a line rate of more than 200 Gbps and an estimation latency of 16μs. Using fixed-point arithmetic and function approximations in the accelerator increases the mean estimation error of our algorithm by only 0.07%.

The Open-Source DeLiBA2 Hardware/Software Framework for Distributed Storage Accelerators

With the trend towards ever larger “big data” applications, many of the gains achievable by using specialized compute accelerators become diminished due to the growing I/O overheads. While there have been several research efforts into computational storage and FPGA implementations of the NVMe interface, to our knowledge there have been only very limited efforts to move larger parts of the Linux block I/O stack into FPGA-based hardware accelerators. Our hardware/software framework DeLiBA initially addressed this deficiency by allowing high-productivity development of software components of the I/O stack in user instead of kernel space and leverages a proven FPGA SoC framework to quickly compose and deploy the actual FPGA-based I/O accelerators. In its initial form, it achieves 10% higher throughput and up to 2.3× the I/Os per second (IOPS) for a proof-of-concept Ceph accelerator running in a real multi-node Ceph cluster. In DeLiBA2, we have extended the framework further to better support distributed storage systems, specifically by directly integrating the block I/O accelerators with a hardware-accelerated network stack, as well as by accelerating more storage functions. With these improvements, performance grows significantly: The cluster-level speed-ups now reach up to 2.8× for both throughput and IOPS relative to Ceph in software in synthetic benchmarks, and achieve end-to-end wall clock speed-ups of 20% for the real workload of building a large software package.

Cross Layer Design Using HW/SW Co-Design and HLS to Accelerate Chaining in Genomic Analysis

DNA sequence analysis is a computationally intensive task. Minimap2 is a state-of-the-art software tool for third-generation sequence analysis workflow. Nearly 50% of Minimap2’s computation time is spent on what is known as the chaining step. In this paper, the chaining step is accelerated using a novel heterogeneous computing system combining an Intel FPGA-based hardware accelerator and a CPU (using HLS for the FPGA and multi-threaded software for the CPU). The system in this paper is capable of handling large realistic workloads, achieves up to ~1.35× performance improvement over the software solution running on an Intel CPU with SIMD intrinsics (Intel’s latest AVX-512), while consuming ~27% less energy. When compared to the software solution running on the CPU without SIMD intrinsics, the system performs ~1.9× faster while consuming ~38% less energy. Importantly, this work also ensures that the accuracy of the output generated is not compromised for the speed-up gained (this work only has an error rate of less than 10-6% compared to 26% in previous FPGA-based chaining step accelerator).

Exploration of Balanced Design in Resource-Constrained Edge Device for Efficient CNNs

Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs) have been widely used in various image recognition applications due to their high precision and high versatility. In order to improve real-time performance, many efficient CNNs with low computational complexity have been proposed. However, compared with the reduction in the amount of calculation, the demand for memory access has not decreased simultaneously. How to balance the utilization of various resources has become a challenge. This brief deeply deconstructs the CNN network and analyzes the relationship among computational resources, on-chip memory, off-chip bandwidth, and throughput. With a given bandwidth, we propose a cross-layer scheduling to minimize the on-chip memory occupancy, which can still fully utilize the computational resources. We implement a flexible FPGA-based hardware accelerator that can deploy the proposed design. According to the experiments on the MobileNetV2, our design reduces the on-chip memory usage by 91.7% and achieves state-of-the-art performance.

Cross-vendor programming abstraction for diverse heterogeneous platforms

Hardware specialization is a well-known means to significantly improve the performance and energy efficiency of various application domains. Modern computing systems consist of multiple specialized processing devices which need to collaborate with each other to execute common tasks. New heterogeneous programming abstractions have been created to program heterogeneous systems. Even though many of these abstractions are open vendor-independent standards, cross-vendor interoperability between different implementations is limited since the vendors typically do not have commercial motivations to invest in it. Therefore, getting good performance from vendor-independent heterogeneous programming standards has proven difficult for systems with multiple different device types. In order to help unify the field of heterogeneous programming APIs for platforms with hardware accelerators from multiple vendors, we propose a new software abstraction for hardware-accelerated tasks based on the open OpenCL programming standard. In the proposed abstraction, we rely on the built-in kernel feature of the OpenCL specification to define a portability layer that stores enough information for automated accelerator utilization. This enables the portability of high-level applications to a diverse set of accelerator devices with minimal programmer effort. The abstraction enables a layered software architecture that provides for an efficient combination of application phases to a single asynchronous application description from multiple domain-specific input languages. As proofs of the abstraction layer serving its purpose for the layers above and below it, we show how a domain-specific input description ONNX can be implemented on top of this portability abstraction, and how it also allows driving fixed function and FPGA-based hardware accelerators below in the hardware-specific backend. We also provide an example implementation of the abstraction to show that the abstraction layer does not seem to incur significant execution time overhead.

FPGA-Based Hardware Accelerator on Portable Equipment for EEG Signal Patterns Recognition

Electroencephalogram (EEG) is a recording of comprehensive reflection of physiological brain activities. Because of many reasons, however, including noises of heartbeat artifacts and muscular movements, there are complex challenges for efficient EEG signal classification. The Convolutional Neural Networks (CNN) is considered a promising tool for extracting data features. A deep neural network can detect the deeper-level features with a multilayer through nonlinear mapping. However, there are few viable deep learning algorithms applied to BCI systems. This study proposes a more effective acquisition and processing HW-SW method for EEG biosignal. First, we use a consumer-grade EEG acquisition device to record EEG signals. Short-time Fourier transform (STFT) and Continuous Wavelet Transform (CWT) methods will be used for data preprocessing. Compared with other algorithms, the CWT-CNN algorithm shows a better classification accuracy. The research result shows that the best classification accuracy of the CWT-CNN algorithm is 91.65%. On the other side, CNN inference requires many convolution operations. We further propose a lightweight CNN inference hardware accelerator framework to speed up inference calculation, and we verify and evaluate its performance. The proposed framework performs network tasks quickly and precisely while using less logical resources on the PYNQ-Z2 FPGA development board.

Hardware acceleration of compression and encryption in SAP HANA

With the advent of cloud computing, where computational resources are expensive and data movement needs to be secured and minimized, database management systems need to reconsider their architecture to accommodate such requirements. In this paper, we present our analysis, design and evaluation of an FPGA-based hardware accelerator for offloading compression and encryption for SAP HANA, SAP's Software-as-a-Service (SaaS) in-memory database. Firstly, we identify expensive data-transformation operations in the I/O path. Then we present the design details of a system consisting of compression followed by different types of encryption to accommodate different security levels, and identify which combinations maximize performance. We also analyze the performance benefits of offloading decryption to the FPGA followed by decompression on the CPU. The experimental evaluation using SAP HANA traces shows that analytical engines can benefit from FPGA hardware offloading. The results identify a number of important trade-offs (e.g., the system can accommodate low-latency secured transactions to high-performance use cases or offer lower storage cost by also compressing payloads for less critical use cases), and provide valuable information to researchers and practitioners exploring the nascent space of hardware accelerators for database engines.

Optimized implementation of an improved KNN classification algorithm using Intel FPGA platform: Covid-19 case study

The improved k-nearest neighbor (KNN) algorithm based on class contribution and feature weighting (DCT-KNN) is a highly accurate approach. However, it requires complex computational steps which consumes much time for the classification process. A field programmable gate array (FPGA) can be used to solve this drawback. However, using traditional hardware description language (HDL) to implement FPGA-based accelerators requires a high design time. Fortunately, the open computing language (OpenCL) high level parallel programming tool allows rapid and effective design on FPGA-based hardware accelerators. In this study, OpenCL has been used to examine speeding up the DCT-KNN algorithm on the FPGA parallel computing platform through applying numerous parallelization and optimization techniques. The optimized approach of the improved KNN could be used in various engineering problems that require a high speed of classification process. Classification of the COVID-19 disease is the case study used to examine this work. The experimental results show that implementing the DCT-KNN algorithm on the FPGA platform (Intel De5a-net Arria-10 device was used) gives an extremely high performance when compared to the traditional single-core-CPU based implementation. The execution time for our optimized design on the FPGA accelerator is 44 times faster than the conventional design implemented on the regular CPU-based computational platform.

Customizable FPGA-Based Hardware Accelerator for Standard Convolution Processes Empowered with Quantization Applied to LiDAR Data.

In recent years there has been an increase in the number of research and developments in deep learning solutions for object detection applied to driverless vehicles. This application benefited from the growing trend felt in innovative perception solutions, such as LiDAR sensors. Currently, this is the preferred device to accomplish those tasks in autonomous vehicles. There is a broad variety of research works on models based on point clouds, standing out for being efficient and robust in their intended tasks, but they are also characterized by requiring point cloud processing times greater than the minimum required, given the risky nature of the application. This research work aims to provide a design and implementation of a hardware IP optimized for computing convolutions, rectified linear unit (ReLU), padding, and max pooling. This engine was designed to enable the configuration of features such as varying the size of the feature map, filter size, stride, number of inputs, number of filters, and the number of hardware resources required for a specific convolution. Performance results show that by resorting to parallelism and quantization approach, the proposed solution could reduce the amount of logical FPGA resources by 40 to 50%, enhancing the processing time by 50% while maintaining the deep learning operation accuracy.

FPGA-based Hardware Acceleration for Fruit Recognition Using SVM

Selection classification for Fruit recognition could be an absolute zone of inspection. Fruit Recognition mistreatment FPGA-based Hardware Acceleration by SVM is helpful for the observance and indexing of the fruits consistent with their kind with the peace of mind of a quick production chain. During this test, we have processed to initial replacement prime quality data-set of pictures grouped in the 5 preferred varieties of oval-shaped fruits. Honor to the fast image process techniques for the development, image resolution, quality of the algorithms leads to carry-out image process and computational tasks. In recent years, deep neural networks have a diode to the event of the many new applications associated with preciseness agriculture, as well as fruit recognition. An algorithm consumes computer power and memory, which has a significant impact on standard and performance, especially when working with large image datasets. Within the planned work, FPG is A based mostly on hardware acceleration for fruit, and recognition is mistreatment with SVM. The Support Vector Machine could be a real-time machine learning tool meant for high predicted classification accuracy through the attributes mentioned. Using SVM for embedded system programs is incredibly difficult attributable to the intensive computations needed. This will increase the attractiveness of implementing SVM on hardware platforms for reaching performance computing with the demanded value of power consumption. Finally, a difficult trade-off between meeting embedded period systems constraints and high classification accuracy has been determined.

A Linux-based support for developing real-time applications on heterogeneous platforms with dynamic FPGA reconfiguration

Computing platforms for next-generation cyber–physical systems are evolving towards heterogeneous architectures comprising different processing elements and hardware accelerators. In particular, SoC-FPGA platforms, including multiple general-purpose processing cores tightly coupled with an FPGA fabric, represent an attractive solution due to their flexibility, efficiency, and timing predictability. On these platforms, dedicated hardware accelerators implemented on the FPGA fabric can offload computationally intensive activities from general-purpose processing cores. Furthermore, dynamic partial reconfiguration allows virtualizing the FPGA resources by sharing them among multiple hardware accelerators over time.Although very promising, FPGA-based hardware acceleration also introduces new challenges, such as managing and scheduling multiple concurrent acceleration and reconfiguration requests. The FRED framework has been proposed to address these challenges while preserving the predictability required by real-time systems. FRED is based on a device model that matches the capabilities of contemporary SoC-FPGA platforms and comes with an ad-hoc scheduling infrastructure designed to guarantee bounded response times for DPR-enabled accelerated tasks. This paper presents Fred-Linux, the reference implementation of the FRED framework for GNU/Linux. Fred-Linux allows developing rich applications while leveraging predictable FPGA-based hardware acceleration for performing heavy computations. Fred-Linux has been developed using the Zynq-7000 and Zynq-UltraScale＋ by Xilinx as reference platforms, and it can be easily ported and extended on other platforms thanks to its modular design.