Foreign Relations Research Articles

Love, Money, or Fame? Determinants of Turkey’s Leader Visits

Abstract High-level leader visits serve as credible signals in international relations, as they not only reveal the priorities of states in foreign relations but also convey messages to third parties. Observations of Turkey’s elevated diplomatic encounters with Iran, China, and Russia suggest a potential deviation from the West, while visits to Middle Eastern capitals are interpreted as evidence of Turkey’s Islamization. Beyond these individual cases, is it possible to identify a pattern of motivations that determine Turkey’s visit dynamics? By constructing a novel dataset from primary sources like official state documents, “Turkey Visits,” which spans the period from 1989 to 2022, this study aims to both characterize the distribution patterns of high-level leader visits and investigate the underlying factors that influence these patterns.

PUBLIC DIPLOMACY AS A TOOL FOR SETTLEMENT OF INTERNATIONAL SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC DISPUTES

Subject of the study. The problems of economic diplomacy are constantly in the focus of researchers' attention, especially in recent years, when the challenges of the globalisation era have significantly changed the rules of interaction in international relations: limiting the possibilities of classical diplomacy within the Westphalian system, allowing new actors (multinational corporations, non-governmental organisations) to enter the diplomatic field, introducing advanced forms of diplomatic communication, etc. These innovations have led to significant changes in the field of economic diplomacy, as the economic aspects of international relations have become crucial in the process of economic competition in the modern world. Hence, the purpose of this paper is to provide an in-depth study of the theoretical and applied aspects of modern instruments of diplomatic influence as a system of mechanisms for interstate regulation of the world economy, which belongs to the sphere of foreign policy and is, by its very nature, one of the main and most effective means of settling international socio-economic disputes. Since the term "diplomacy" is most often used: 1) in the sense of state activity in the sphere of foreign relations; 2) as a set of institutions and persons engaged in state activity in the sphere of foreign relations; 3) to define the profession of a diplomat. Traditionally, some of the main methods of diplomatic activity are: negotiations, conclusion of bilateral (multilateral) agreements, opening of representative offices of one state in another, etc. Methods of implementing diplomacy are defined as appropriate levers of influence on governments, diplomatic representatives and other persons of foreign states, using and applying the world's effective diplomatic experience of conducting business relations of states to achieve its objectives. Currently, economic diplomacy is an important catalyst for economic progress not only in individual countries but also in the global economy, an integral element of foreign policy to improve international competitiveness, investment and tourist attractiveness of the country, increase its foreign trade activity, open new production facilities and create new jobs. Undoubtedly, the role of economic diplomacy is obvious for countries with a high level of investment and trade activity, for SMEs trying to enter the markets of other countries, and for multinational companies that are strengthening their presence in the world. Conclusion. The current development of multilateral economic diplomacy is shaped by the following trends: expansion of the mandate of leading multilateral organisations and forums beyond the scope of traditionally discussed issues (in recent years, the OECD has been discussing non-traditional aspects such as environmental and food security, population ageing, fighting corruption, etc.); increasing the number of participants in the global economy and expanding the scope of regulation within international organisations necessitates reforming the institutions of multilateral economic diplomacy (the WTO has developed a document "The Future of the WTO" containing proposals for organisational reform); multilateral economic diplomacy has become open and public (many developed countries often make proposals addressed to the entire world community (especially on global issues of economic, social and environmental development)); interaction of various organisations and forums is increasing (the WTO cooperates with the IMF, the World Bank, the UN, UNCTAD, etc.); increase in the level of publicity and transparency of multilateral diplomacy (openness to the media, prompt posting of information on the official websites of international organisations). Despite the fact that multilateral economic diplomacy has many problems, it can be argued that bilateral and multilateral economic diplomacy forms an effective mechanism for managing global economic processes in the interests of individual countries and the global community as a whole.

The First Central Asian Episode in US Foreign Relations: Eugene Schuyler, Turkestan, and America’s Tacit Acknowledgment of Russia as a Eurasian Power

Eugene Schuyler was the first American to travel to Central Asia. Recognized as a scholar diplomat, he had written extensively on Russia and served as the US consul to Reval and the secretary of the American legation in St. Petersburg. During his diplomatic service in Russia, Schuyler was granted absence of leave to visit Central Asia and witnessed the Russian conquest of the region. He was also accompanied by the Russian army to visit the Ili region in Xinjiang amid the Dungan Revolt (1862–1877). Schuyler’s unusual experience was detailed in his travelogue Turkistan, Notes of a Journey in Russian Turkistan, Khokand, Bukhara, and Kuldja. This paper aims to analyze his travelogue to track down the earliest American contact with Central Asia. It argues that the US, even though aware of Russian military activity in the region from Schuyler’s report, tacitly acknowledged Russia’s hegemony in Asia. This could be attributable to Schuyler’s partiality to Russia’s cause, the generally congenial atmosphere in the US-Russia relations in the 1870s, and the absence of perceived US interests in Central Asia. The US foreign policy decision of the 1870s had far-reaching economic consequences and lasting political implications into the 19 th century and beyond.

TRANSFORMATION OF GLOBAL ORDER

The global order is changing. Not only Yalta-Potsdam and postbipolar systems are changing but also Westphalian sovereignty with its government centricity and “dictatorship of great Powers” is transforming. New configuration is being built in the modern system of international relations. In the modern system of foreign relations sanctions took a form of wide-scale global actions against certain countries. As an economical instrument in foreign relations, sanctions became a “Universal hammer” in the hands of the world economical giant - the USA - to solve its narrow national objectives. Value foundations of international relations are also being reformatted. Information wars became part of modern international relations. Russia’s special military operation (SMO) in Ukraine is changing the modern American order that established itself after the USSR’s disintegration. The way the future global order is going to be shaped depends on the way Russia is going to solve the Ukrainian question.

Concept of Transformation of the Economic System of the Republic of South Ossetia: Main Directions of Implementatio

The article examines the problems of the economy of the Republic of South Ossetia and proposes the main directions for implementing the development concept in order to intensify the growth rate of the economy; increase its efficiency and improve all components of the social sphere; the key tasks of further political activity of the Republic of South Ossetia were identified, and the directions of structural transformations of the Republic’s economy were analyzed. The collapse of the USSR contributed to the appearance on the political map of the world of a number of unrecognized republics, the formation of which was a consequence of the clash of interests of major geopolitical entities. Over time, these republics contributed not only to changes in the economies of the main initiators of their creation, but also changed themselves, thereby undermining the existing order for years, destroying the structure and forms of ownership that had been established for decades, contributing to the decline in production. The states of the post-Soviet period that were newly formed after military conflicts have fewer opportunities both for the development of human capital and for expanding foreign economic relations and actively attracting investments. Taking this, into account new tools and mechanisms are needed to effectively stabilize the socio-economic situation of these regions and a gradual transition to self-development. The formation of unrecognized or partially recognized territories contributes to the emergence of rather complex problems that require their deep understanding, appropriate study and implementation of very flexible national and economic policies; in any other case, these territories are very difficult to preserve, which was confirmed by the events in Nagorno-Karabakh in September 2023, as a result of which this state formation ceased to exist, which caused a deep resonance among the entire world community. In this study we will consider in more detail the main ways of restoration and planned development of the Republic of South Ossetia, as well as the main directions of the concept of transformation of the economic system of the Republic of South Ossetia.

China and Mongolia: The Limits of Sheep and Tea Diplomacy

This article assesses Chinese and Mongolian relations following the withdrawal of the Soviet troops. Starting from the ‘normalisation’ of relations in 1989, the study follows three different phases in the development of the bilateral relationship: inception, acceleration, and ambiguity. Currently, the impending transformation of global foreign policy dynamics places Mongolia at a crossroads, potentially pushing it into a precarious geopolitical ‘grey zone’. In particular, the uncertainty disrupted the relative stability that Mongolia has maintained under its ‘ambiguous’ foreign policy, which involved avoiding alignment with either of its neighbours and broadening its foreign relations. Using the logic of two-level politics by Putnam (1988) for the analyses, the study examines the constraints and pressures that foreign policy executives face, and assesses the most likely areas for cooperation among the economic, political, security, and societal sectors. The findings draw on data from multiple sources and show that, in general, Mongolia’s economic dependence is at the core of bilateral relations. However, the findings also show that even if Mongolia is often depicted as a hostage of great power politics, there is a lot of omni-balancing between internal and external pressures. In the end, suggesting more political nuance than can be expected.

Impact of Sanctions on Formation of the Russian Approach to the Legal Regulation of Cross-Border Insolvency

This article is devoted to the analysis of the impact of sanctions and counter-sanctions measures on the formation of the approach of Russian courts to the consideration of disputes in insolvency cases. under the influence of integration processes on a global and regional scale, there is an intensification of foreign economic relations of economic entities from different countries, the interdependence of legal entities is formed within the framework of the international economic process. the active development of international economic activity brings with it not only great profits, opportunities for cost reduction and the development of international communication, but also the most severe crisis phenomena, a great risk of not staying afloat, resulting in a relatively new phenomenon of cross-border insolvency. The author noted the problematic aspects of the impact of sanctions on the consideration of insolvency disputes, including the initiation of bankruptcy proceedings, the inclusion of foreign creditors in the register of creditors’ claims, the recognition and enforcement of foreign judgments. The author studied cases from the latest practice of Russian courts, noted the features of the consideration of insolvency cases involving creditors and debtors of «unfriendly» countries, made conclusions and assumptions about the further development of judicial practice.

AGING AND FOREIGN POLICY: EXPERIENCING THE GLOBAL TRACK OF THE HEALTH AND AGING POLICY FELLOWSHIP

Abstract The Health and Aging Policy Fellowship includes a Global Track that provides fellows with the opportunity to shape global policy or U.S. foreign policy for an aging society. The author, a global health expert and 2022-2023 fellow, sought a fellowship placement with a member of Congress with jurisdiction over U.S. global health policy. Although global health is a significant foreign policy priority for the U.S. government, U.S. global health programs do not include dedicated funding for activities designed to benefit older adults or help development partners adapt to population aging. The result is that US-funded programs on issues from infectious disease to health systems strengthening to disaster relief lack a focus on older adults, despite their many links to this growing population. To help address this policy gap, the author secured a fellowship placement with Senator Benjamin Cardin (D-MD), a senior member of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee (SFRC) and Chair of the SFRC Subcommittee overseeing the State Department, US Agency for International Development, and bilateral development assistance. With his track record of legislation and oversight on issues such as Medicare, health disparities, medical research, oral health, health systems strengthening, and retirement security, Senator Cardin is well positioned to help integrate the needs of older adults into U.S. development assistance. The author used his fellowship year to help advance the global health-related legislative priorities of Senator Cardin and his Health Team, bringing his expertise and perspective on aging to the policy table while gaining invaluable skills in the policy process.

Non Align Foreign Policy Towards Great Powers And Regional Power- Case Study Sri Lanka

This comprehensive article delves into the strategic importance of Sri Lanka in the Indian Ocean region and the diplomatic, economic, and military strategies adopted by the nation to safeguard its national interests. The discussion is enriched with insights into how Sri Lanka can effectively utilize its economic, diplomatic, information, and military resources to achieve its objectives. Sri Lanka's unique geographical location places it at the crossroads of major global powers and regional players, making its foreign policy choices of paramount significance. The article also evaluates the risks and costs associated with Sri Lanka's national objectives, accounting for the strategic environment, geopolitical considerations, and domestic factors. Assumptions of competing interests, regional cooperation, and economic competition are considered, both on the international and domestic fronts. This in depth examination of Sri Lanka's foreign policy and strategic approach provides valuable insights into the nation's pursuit of its national interests and the challenges it faces in a complex and dynamic global environment. The USA, China and India interests in Sri Lanka encompass several dimensions. Sri Lanka aims to position itself in the current world order by shaping its Nonaligned foreign policy and foreign relations with great powers and regional power protecting her national interest. A conceptual framework based on Terry Deibel's Strategic Logic Approach to Analyse Strategic Options to manage relation with Great powers and the Regional power as per Sri Lankan National Interests. Further, this paper discuss Ends Means and Ways of nonaligned Foreign Policy according Instrument of National power and Strategic Options Available.

Внешнеэкономические связи и приграничное сотрудничество приграничных регионов Дальневосточного федерального округа как фактор обеспечения их динамичного развития

The article analyzes common approaches to solving the problem of developing the Far East by expanding promising foreign economic relations. The authors analyzed the regulatory framework and strategic planning documents on the development of the Far East region, highlighted key projects aimed at expanding foreign economic cooperation of the boundary regions. The development of the West-East international transport corri-dor is highlighted as key strategies; increasing the carrying capacity of the Baikal-Amur and Trans-Siberian railways, reorienting gas exports to the Asia-Pacific countries. Preferential regimes, reduction of the tax burden, simplification of bureaucratic procedures, reduction of the loan rate for small businesses, and development of free trade zones are effective mechanisms for developing investment attractiveness for foreign investors.

Export impact in the EEU on the economy of Kazakhstan

The controversy regarding the place of the Eurasian Economic Union in the economy of Kazakhstan has become especially relevant in the current geopolitical conditions. Some economists consider the Union as a booster of the economy, others as a ballast that pulls the development of the economy back. Kazakhstan is a country with an open economy, so export plays an important role in the development of the economy. This article aims to consider the role played by the export of the Republic of Kazakhstan in general, to the EEU and to countries outside the Union, as well as how the Union has influenced the diversification of the economy of Kazakhstan. The authors' review of the scientific literature on this topic showed that the analysis of Kazakhstan's foreign economic relations in the EEU is given enough attention in domestic and foreign scientific literature. However, the authors wanted to present their vision of this problem. We analyzed the impact of exports in the EEU on Kazakhstan's GDP in comparison with the impact of total exports, as well as exports to non-EEU countries. As well as an analysis of changes in the structure of exports to find out whether the Economic Union has contributed to the diversification of the economy of Kazakhstan. The study used methods of comparison, analogy, regression and factor analysis using data from the Bureau of National Statistics of the Republic of Kazakhstan, as well as statistics of the Eurasian Commission. The results can be used in further research.

Особливості запровадження процедури спільного транзиту в Україні

The article is devoted to the topical issues of legal regulation of the customs transit regime in Ukraine in the context of adaptation of customs legislation to the norms and standards of the European Union. Establishment of customs regimes is one of the central components of the customs system. Their introduction is intended to serve the development of foreign trade, economic cooperation and contribute to the state budget. Customs regimes play a stimulating, regulatory and protective role in the process of economic growth. The authors examine the customs transit regime and its variant, the common transit regime, and analyse its legal nature and peculiarities of legal regulation. Transit is an important customs regime which performs a stimulating function and contributes to the development of Ukraine's foreign economic relations, and its functioning requires proper legal support. The article reveals the concept and essence of the novelty of customs legislation "unified clearance system", which is a legal regulation of the procedure and conditions for moving goods through the customs territory of Ukraine under the unified clearance system. The rights and obligations of the subjects of the common transit regime, legal support of customs procedures and electronic data exchange in the course of application of the common transit regime are considered. The author analyses the legal support of customs procedures and electronic data exchange during the application of the common transit procedure through the electronic transit system. The analysis of national and international legal acts proves that the system has its own specifics, its own content and is an integral element of the common transit regime. It is emphasised that a number of issues related to the coexistence of two customs regimes (transit and common transit) require further regulation in the relevant legislation. In addition, the legislator will face the task of further reforming the functioning of the customs system by introducing appropriate amendments and additions to the Customs Code of Ukraine and other legislative acts.

TRANSBOUNDARY REGIONALIZATION: TYPOLOGY OF REGIONS AND SPATIAL PLANNING

The relevance of the issue of transborder regionalization, as well as the need to implement spatial development
 goals for the effective use of spatial factors, reveals the importance of improving the theoretical and methodological
 foundations for developing a concept for the development of transborder regions of the Republic of Belarus. The article
 examines the geopolitical aspects of transnational regionalization and the content of emerging regions on the basis of
 existing ideas about regionalization and transnational regions, identifying the basis for classifying regions according to
 geospatial characteristics: spatial scale, geospatial structure. A theoretical analysis of the scientific literature showed
 that transit flows and innovations act as catalysts for the economic development of cross-border regions, along with the
 resource endowment of the regions. The theoretical regional classification of regions is supplemented with the
 “transborder economic development corridor” type. The signs of this type of region are: the formation of the region at
 the macro- and meso-level, intensive foreign trade relations, the influence of transit functions on the production and
 innovation basis of the region’s economy.

العلاقات العباسية البيزنطية في عصر السلاجقة

This study aims to highlight the Abbasid-Byzantine relations during the Seljuk era and to identify the early historical features of the political relations between the two countries. The study also aims to identify the origin and lineage of the Seljuks and determine the nature of the relationship between the Seljuks and the Byzantine state. In addition, it tackles the most important military battles between the two states and their most important results. In addition, to know the military power of the Seljuk state and how they prepare and arrange their military forces. The importance of this study comprises the political relations of the Seljuk state with the Byzantine state, the emergence of the Seljuks as a main military force that had a major role in changing the interior political situation of the Abbasid state and limited the political and military influence of the Byzantine state, This study relied on historical, descriptive, and analytical methods as well as a list of historical sources and references. The results demonstrate the important aspect of the exterior relations of the Seljuk state and the importance of Byzantine state power, which represented one of the major global states at that time. The study also clarifies the important aspects of the history of the two states. The results also show that the relation between the two states was not always belligerent and hostile, but rather peaceful and friendly sometimes. The most important recommendations include the interest in studying the foreign relations of the Seljuk state. Besides, the importance of studying the economic, commercial and social history of the Seljuk state to determine their role and the extent of their great civilizational contribution in the development of the history of the Islamic state.

U.S. - Chinese foreign economic relations at the stage of "partial decoupling"

The Biden administration is using trade policy tools to reformat international supply chains in favor of national producers. The adjustment of the U.S. foreign economic policy towards China is carried out in conjunction with national security issues. The goals pursued are to weaken China economically. The future of U.S. - China trade relations are seen as moving along the trajectory of “partial decoupling”. The complete disintegration is not in Washington's interests as economies of the two countries remain interdependent and complementary, and will only push China to strive for self-development.

Implementation of the National Security Strategy by analyzing the foreign trade turnover of products of the Russian chemical complex

Subject. This article discusses the issues of development of foreign economic relations in the context of international sanctions. Objectives. The article aims to assess Russia's position in the global market of chemical products. Methods. For the study, we used the methods of systems, comparative, structural, and logical analyses. Results. The article systematizes data on exports and imports of chemical products for 2022, and identifies priority areas of cooperation for Russia. Conclusions. In 2022, the ratio of trade turnover for exports and imports of chemical products, which is favorable for Russia, makes it possible to support the development of the industry. Reducing Russia's dependence on imported technologies and components will contribute to ensuring the country's economic security.

TRADE RELATIONS OF THE ALTAI TERRITORY AND THE REPUBLIC OF KAZAKHSTAN IN THE FIELD OF FOOD

Currently, the processes of globalization in the international arena are intensifying, and processes of economic integration are taking place. The Russian Federation and the Altai Territory, as its subject, must look for opportunities to develop foreign economic activity, taking into account international tensions associated with political decisions.
 The Altai Territory and the Republic of Kazakhstan have long-standing historical ties, which continue today in the sphere of economics and trade. Both territories are located at the intersection of many transport routes, which creates additional opportunities for the development of trade relations. One of the main sectors of the economy of the Altai Territory is agriculture. The Republic of Kazakhstan is also a major producer of agricultural products. In this regard, the prospects for the development of trade relations between the Altai Territory and Kazakhstan in this area are very high. Mutual supplies of products can become the basis for strengthening economic ties between them.
 The article analyzes the trends in foreign trade between the two countries and highlights the key problems of the foreign economic partnership between Russia and Kazakhstan, which negatively impact foreign economic, political and cultural relations.

A Fragile Agenda for Peace: Change and Continuity in the Biden Administration’s Africa Policy

As the Biden administration’s first term nears its conclusion, this essay takes stock of the emerging consequences of its approach to US foreign relations with Africa. It does so by assessing change and continuity in US relations with the African states that have been selected by the Biden administration for Global Fragility Act partnerships: Libya, Mozambique, and, as a region, the coastal West African states of Ghana, Guinea, Togo, Benin, and Côte d’Ivoire. Passed in late 2019, the Global Fragility Act was hailed as a policy innovation meant to bring better coordination and long-term planning to US attempts to prevent conflicts and engender stability in regions of concern for Washington. This essay argues that these aims will be undermined by the dearth of new proposals advanced by the Global Fragility Act as well as the Biden administration’s overarching commitment to counterterrorism and geostrategic competition in Africa.

India - Nepal Foreign Relations in the Context of Economics: Late 20th- Early 21st Century

In the context of the economy, India's foreign policy toward Nepal is defined by a complicated mix of cooperation and rivalry, with both nations attempting to strike a balance between their different interests while navigating a variety of political, economic, and strategic problems. Through a number of initiatives over the past few years, including the extension of a line of credit to support infrastructure development, the creation of an India-Nepal Joint Economic Commission, and the promotion of cross-border trade and investment, India has sought to deepen its economic ties with Nepal. These efforts have been aimed at boosting economic growth and development in Nepal while enhancing India's regional influence. However, India's foreign policy towards Nepal has also faced criticism, with some arguing that it prioritizes its own interests over Nepal's. This has led to tensions between the two countries, with Nepal seeking to diversify its economic and diplomatic ties beyond India. In this study, the trade, investment, aid, and tourism relations between India and Nepal are examined. It looks at how the economic hegemony of India and Nepal shaped the two countries' economic ties. The study also looks into the challenges and opportunities for the India-Nepal economic partnership. It investigates the issues related to trade barriers, infrastructure development, and energy cooperation. Additionally, this study examines the impact of political and diplomatic factors on the economic relationship between India and Nepal. The research is based on a combination of primary and secondary sources, including interviews with key stakeholders, economic data analysis, and a review of relevant literature. The findings of this study suggest that the economic relationship between India and Nepal has been significant and mutually beneficial, but there are several challenges that need to be addressed to realize the full potential of the partnership. Overall, this study offers insights into the prospects and challenges for deepening the economic relationships between the two countries as well as a better knowledge of the economic aspects of India-Nepal foreign relations.

ANALYSIS OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT OF UZBEKISTAN'S REGIONAL ECONOMY

Uzbekistan is committed to integrating into economic globalization and actively participating in regional integration construction. From the beginning of the period President of the Republic of Uzbekistan Sh.Mirziyoyev has regarded the development of relations with neighboring countries and the strengthening of interregional economic cooperation as the priority of foreign relations of Uzbekistan's diplomatic and economic work, and is committed to building its own regional integration strategy. At the same time, Uzbekistan's economic strategy is of great significance to the stability and development of Central Asia, and will further promote the extensive international cooperation of the “The Belt and Road” initiative.