Foreign Intercourse Research Articles

Coordinating Intelligence: An American Drama in Three Acts… of Congress

The National Security Act of 1947 was neither the first nor the last legislative word on intelligence coordination. Instead, it was the second of three formative, although not formidable, acts of Congress that have provided models for U.S. intelligence coordination: the Contingent Fund for Foreign Intercourse, the National Security Act of 1947, and the Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act of 2004. This article reveals how the debate over intelligence coordination in the United States reaches back further than existing accounts that examine the origins of the Central Intelligence Agency. This article also uses the theme of intelligence coordination to introduce a new chronology for U.S intelligence history.

ФОРМУВАННЯ КУЛЬТУРИ ІНШОМОВНОГО ПРОФЕСІЙНОГО СПІЛКУВАННЯ МАЙБУТНІХ ЮРИСТІВ

A role and value of foreign language which predetermines professional training of future lawyers’ grows in the conditions of euro integration processes. The author emphasizes that the first condition of the formation of culture of foreign professional intercourse of the future lawyers is stimulation of professional motivation of students in mastering foreign intercourse as an important component of professionalism of modern lawyers. For development of professional motivation of mastering foreign professional communication at the first English lessons students were given the special purpose of mastering a select profession on the whole and the special meaningfulness for the modern specialist was given to communicative activity which requires mastering of foreign professional communication in connection with the increase of role of connections with foreign partners for providing of efficiency of production process. For the formation of positive motivation of professional training of students the following forms of work were used: a direct acquaintance with the real production, meetings with graduating students, who convinced present students in importance of mastering foreign professional communication as important constituent of their competitiveness in a future profession, co-operating with foreign partners in modern market relations, etc. An important place at the lessons was given to trainings (training of foreign intercourse, training of motivation of achievement of success, image-training) during which students were oriented on the formation of culture of professional intercourse on the whole and foreign professional communication in particular, and also on a correction and development of the motivational settings. The task of trainings consisted in the formation of positive estimation of the «I», directed imagination, confidence, management of the students' opinions and feelings. Besides teachers turned the special attention on positiveness of socializing with students, strengthening of their faith, created the special trustful atmosphere, promoted activity of participants. Key words: motivation, foreign professional intercourse, future lawyers, training, foreign professional communication.

Компетентність викладача англійської мови у професійному середовищі майбутніх судноводіїв

The article is devoted to the analysis of competence of teacher in the professional studying. The special skills and abilities of foreign intercourse are required for professional activity of maritime specialists. The task of vocational education is not only the formation of professional knowledge, skills and abilities, but also the orientation to further enhancement of professional communication interaction, the development of communication skills to solve professional problems. For the professional activity of future maritime specialists, the communication skills become of special importance. The sphere of professional communication interaction of navigators according to the requirements of International Convention include the use of English in the transmission and reception of information, planning and conducting location, the use of radar for the safety of navigation, emergency operations, personnel, etc. In the process of organization model of professional English studying, specification of maritime industry and safety of sailing in international navy space should be taken into account. In the article the author proves the importance of learning the basics of maritime speciality and professional terminology by the teachers of English. Accordingly, the teaching methods of this course should be as close as possible to the specifics of the professional activity, its lexical, syntactical and morphological content, that are characteristic of the professional activity of future navigators. Some approaches to solving the problem has been offered: to use materials in English classes based on the concepts of navy specialty, since teachers are often mistakenly believe that students are sufficiently familiar with the basics of their profession; to create professional situations in English classes in which students could use the acquired theoretical knowledge to solve practical problems; to use the information which is known to students, but presented in another way; to concentrate students’ attention on the instructions and explanations of practical use of the language, but based on the methodology of the specialty. Keywords: professional English studying, context learning, teacher, future navigators, teaching in a team, approach to studying.

The nationality law and entry restrictions of 1899: constructing Japanese identity between China and the West

Japan’s new treaties with the Western powers came into force in the summer of 1899. These signified Japan’s recognition as a modern state, but also opened the whole of Japan to residence and commerce for the nationals of the Western powers. This article examines Japan’s legislative response to this new era of both political equality and expanded foreign intercourse and exchange. This comprised two new laws, Japan’s first nationality law and new entry restrictions, both of which defined the boundaries of Japanese identity. The West played a paramount role in the crafting of these laws, but often forgotten is the role played by China. By examining the international contexts and the debates that attended the passage of these laws, this article shows that each law enacted a form of exclusion: the former sought to mitigate Western influence, while the latter sought to minimize Chinese immigration. Together, they reflected Japan’s international position between two others: China and the West.

ТРАНСФОРМАЦІЯ ВІЙСЬКОВОЇ ПОЛІТИКИ ТА ПОЛІТИКИ БЕЗПЕКИ В ЄВРОПІ НА ТЛІ «УКРАЇНСЬКОЇ КРИЗИ» 2014 Р.

The article touches upon the impact of the Russian aggression in Crimea and in Donbas region in 2014 on the European countries’, as well as the EU and NATO’s revision of their respective military and security policy. The role of the Russia-Ukraine conflict in strengthening the North Atlantic Treaty Organization’s contemporary position in Europe has been unfolded. The divergence of the foreign and security policy intercourse of the European states caused by geography, history and military factors has been analyzed. Thus, the article reveals the Central and East Europe’s rising focus on the Russian aggression in Ukraine and the impact thereof on shaping the subregional security policy. On the other hand, the states of West Europe pay way less attention to considering the conflict as an element of their security strategy. However, a series of divergences does exist within the East and Central European political elite when it comes to determination of their respective countries’ situation in the contemporary security map of the continent within the framework of the so-called “Ukraine crisis”. For instance, one can distinguish Bulgaria and Czech Republic as black sheep of the post-socialistic Europe when it comes to the general security and political course of the East and Center when it comes to the Ukrainian issue. The article as well shapes the background and the essence of Germany’s leading role in the common foreign and security policy of the EU. It is concluded that NATO should concentrate on its traditional military activity aspect and thoughtfully cooperate with the EU to succeed in resolving issues of the European collective security.

The Foreign Intercourse Bill of 1798 and the Debate over Early American Foreign Relations

Between January and March of 1798 the House of Representatives debated the foreign intercourse bill, which would fund the diplomatic corps for the next two years. This was a generally a routine function, but it soon became a wide-ranging debate over the basis nature of American diplomacy, and of the American republic itself. The debate revealed something important about the politics of the 1790s. Given that republics were inherently fragile, even seemingly small matters might destroy the American republic. Both Republicans and Federalists proceeded from this assumption. The debate fell into three broad categories. First was the question of who should be appointed. The Republicans accused President Adams of using additional diplomatic appointments as a vehicle to create a patronage machine that would corrupt Congress. The Federalists that countered that amount of patronage available was insignificant, and that that the president was justified in excluding Republicans from office. Second was the question of who should control the appointments. This led back to the control of American foreign policy. The Republicans argued for congressional control through the appropriation and war powers. The Federalists contended for presidential control through the treaty and appointment powers. Third was the question of whether diplomats should be appointed at all. The Republicans believed that trade would allow the United States to secure its diplomatic goals without recourse to the normal institutions of diplomacy. The Republicans considered the United States as existing outside the European balance of power. The Federalists saw no choice but to play by the generally established rules, and thus must appoint diplomats.

The Premise of Fidelity: Science, Visuality, and Representing the Real in Nineteenth-Century Japan by Maki Fukuoka (review)

In Japan between the 1720s and the 1890s there occurred a “swerve” in the Lucretian sense that Stephen Greenblatt uses in his eponymous book. There, he describes the swerve that occurred during the European Renaissance as the “change from one way of perceiving and living in the world to another.”1 This also aptly describes the change that started on the Japanese archipelago in the early eighteenth century. Despite the strict limits on Japan’s foreign intercourse from the 1630s until Perry’s arrival, the period from the 1720s was one of intense intellectual activity that included growing attention to European ideas and culture. As it is commonly known, at that time the Japanese adopted and absorbed European, especially Dutch, approaches to natural history and medicine.2 Yet we know less about the processes of change during those years than about the outcomes. By 1895, the Japanese had structured people’s lives around modern clocks and calendars, initiated the compilation of national vital and other statistics, developed an industrial economy, founded universities, mandated universal education, created a constitutional state, established a modern army and navy that defeated China at war, acquired a foreign empire, and proven themselves capable of cutting-edge scientific work, at least in bacteriology and other medical sciences. And these are only some of the most important changes that those years witnessed. Discoveries by Japanese physicists that contributed to the building of atomic bombs were soon to follow. The Japanese had “swerved” in a way that made them the first non-Western people to become major participants in the projects of modernity. The Premise of Fidelity: Science, Visuality, and Representing the Real in Nineteenth-Century Japan, by Maki Fukuoka, examines an impor-

복종과 저항 우치무라 간조(內村鑑三)의 애국심에 대한 일고찰

Modern Japan as we know it today is the result of the shock of Western imperialism which opened the country to foreign intercourse. Uchimura Kanzo lived at a time when the country attained national unification as a Tenno system state. Japan - which was an object of patriotism for Uchimura - promoted a religious authority referred to as the Tenno system that was created under the Constitution of the Empire of Japan(大日本帝國憲法, DaiNippon Teikoku Kenpo) and the Imperial Rescript on Education(敎育勅語, Kyoiku Chokugo). The system required the loyalty and obedience of a ‘subject (臣民)’. In other words, under the Tenno system Japanese people (namely "subjects") were locked in a framework of ‘implicit obedience’ as a national structure, in which loyalty to the nation meant unconditional obedience. Rather than unconditional loyalty, Uchimura viewed the responsibility of a Christian to the state as one based on obedience or resistance according to conscience. However, limited by the barrier of nationalism, Uchimura’s patriotism prevented him from crossing the races barrier, as should be obvious from his Korean recognition.

The development of the China media law system opening country to foreign intercourse and legal subject

The development of the China media law system opening country to foreign intercourse and legal subject

The Treaty with China: Its Provisions Explained

The Treaty with China: Its Provisions Explained

The beginnings of modern education in Korea, 1883–1910

Korea opened up to foreign intercourse in 1876, when the country concluded its first international treaty with Japan. Similar treaties with European and American nations followed during the 1880s. The period until 1910, when Korea was annexed to the Japanese Empire, saw manifold attempts to reform as well as resistance to these reforms. Against the background of research on the world institutionalisation of education, this contribution analyses the changes that the opening of Korea entailed in the field of education, especially focusing on newly established forms of education. First, modern education was characterised by newly created institutions and curricula. These institutions can be classified according to the actors engaged in their creation, private Korean citizens, foreign missionary actors and the Korean government. Second, new educational discourses and practices characterised modern education in Korea. These new discourses played a central role in negotiating Korean nationalism and in culturally positioning Korea between China and the “West”. Bodily practices were radically changed through uniforms, new hairstyles and military drills. A new system of classroom interaction was introduced to Korea.

The Treaty with China

THE TREATY WITH CHINA ITS PROVISIONS EXPLAINED Every one has read the treaty which has just been concluded between the United States and China. Everyone has read it, but in it there are expressions which not every one understands. There are clauses which seem vague, other clauses which seem almost unnecessary, and still others which bear the flavor of “surplusage,” to speak in legal phrase. The most careful reading of the document will leave these impressions—that is, unless one comprehends the past and present condition of foreign intercourse with China—in which case it will be seen at once that there is no word in the treaty without a meaning, and no clause in it but was dictated by a present need or a wise policy looking to the future. It will interest many of your readers to know why this, that, and the other provision was incorporated in the treaty; it will interest others to know in what manner and to what extent the treaty will affect our existing relations with China. Apart from its grave importance, the subject is really as entertaining as any I know of and—asking pardon for the presumption—I desire to write a few paragraphs upon it. We made a treaty with China in 1858; Mr. Burlingame’s new treaty is an addition to that one, and an amplification of its powers. The first article of this new treaty reads as follows: ARTICLE I. His Majesty, the Emperor of China, being of the opinion that in making concessions to the citizens or subjects of foreign Powers of the privilege of residing on certain tracts of land, or resorting to certain waters of that Empire for the purposes of trade, he has by no means relinquished his right of eminent domain or dominion over the said land and waters, hereby agrees that no such concession or grant shall be construed to give to any Power or party which may be at war with or hostile to the United States the right to attack the citizens of the United States or their property within the said lands or waters; and the United States, for themselves, hereby agree to abstain from offensively attacking the citizens or subjects of any Power or party or their property with which they may be at war on any such tract of land or waters of the said Empire; but nothing in this article shall be construed to prevent the United States from resisting an attack by any hostile Power or party upon their citizens or their property. It is further agreed that if any right or interest in any tract of land in China has been or shall hereafter be granted by the Government of China to the United States or their citizens for purposes of trade or commerce, that grant shall in no event be construed to divest the Chinese authorities of their right of jurisdiction over persons and property within said tract of land, except so far as that right may have been expressly relinquished by treaty.

Internal Alchemy: Self, Society, and the Quest for Immortality ed. by Livia Kohn, Robin R. Wang (review)

102 Journal of Chinese Religions China had been “open to foreign intercourse and religious tolerance” (p. 125)—a nowaxiomatic assessment of the Tang period for which the Nestorian stele is important evidence, but which Keevak dismisses as a “fantasized prehistory.” The obscurity of the language and allusions on the stele have been noted ever since its discovery, but for Keevak that difficulty becomes opacity and in fact “untranslatability” (p. 11), an extraordinary statement considering his self-confessed lack of expertise in Chinese, but one which enables him to emphasize the role of fantasy and wish-fulfilment in European responses to the monument. In sum, The Story of a Stele is an interesting, though limited, case study of Western discussions of China as pertaining to the Nestorian monument. Even if it cannot stand in for the whole history of Western imperialist misunderstanding of China in the way the author contends, it is still a useful window into that history, albeit a more modest one. RYAN DUNCH, University of Alberta Internal Alchemy: Self, Society, and the Quest for Immortality Edited by LIVIA KOHN and ROBIN R. WANG. Magdalena, NM: Three Pines Press, 2009. 248 pages. ISBN 978-1-931483-11-7. US$29.95 paper. This collective work on internal alchemy (neidan 內丹) brings together in a comparative perspective articles from specialists on Taoism, practitioners of alchemical techniques, and specialists on or practitioners of Indian and Western traditions. It includes twelve articles analyzing different aspects of the field: its history, theories of representations of the body and of cosmological models, the various practices, as well as alchemy and Taoist women. The historical aspect is dealt with in the two articles by Zhang Guangbao, “History and Early Lineages” (pp. 53-72), and Lu Xichen, “The Southern School: Cultivating Mind and Inner Nature” (pp. 73-86). These are succinct descriptions of the beginnings of neidan from the Tang era, through its development under the Song within the Zhong-Lü 鍾呂 tradition, and its division into two schools, the Northern and the Southern. Lu Xichen presents the southern School well, noting the Buddhist influences on this movement, notably the notion of the heart/mind (xin 心), more central here than in the school of Zhong-Lü, which places more emphasis on qi 氣 and essence (jing 精). The novice will receive a good overview of the history of neidan, but the specialist will not find much of interest here. For example, when Zhang Guangbao grapples with the question of where the term neidan first appeared and how Book Reviews 103 it developed, he ignores Farzeen Baldrian-Hussein’s indispensable article on the subject,7 even while citing her research on Lü Dongbin 呂洞賓. In the introductory first chapter, “Modes of Mutation: Restructuring the Energy Body” (pp. 1-26), Livia Kohn gives a clear presentation of neidan as having transposed the processes and conceptions of operative alchemy (waidan 外丹) to the inside of the body: the body image, qi exercises, visualizations, internal meditation, and the integration of these concepts and methods into cosmological models. Then she briefly outlines a parallel to the American Rosicrucian Order, which has, apparently, started tying together its own traditions with Indian practices and qigong 氣功. The purpose of the book is clear in this introduction, namely to meet the demand of practitioners who are more and more attracted to Asian practices, in connection with Hermetic and New Age movements. This could already be seen in the article’s title with its reference to the “energy body,” a notion close to those of the subtle, astral, and ethereal body, likewise terms used in these movements. In her article on the body as an internal realm (“Internal Landscapes,” pp. 27-52), Sara Neswald synthesizes existing works on this subject (without taking into account the differences between periods and currents) before sketching some affinities to Tibetan concepts. She describes the cosmic body, the body as the home of the gods, the mountainbody in which the adept can execute a sort of inner pilgrimage, a pilgrimage the author connects to those of the Tibetan tradition of Kalacakra. She emphasizes that these maps and concepts of the body are only general guidelines for a journey that remains personal, since each transformation must differ from...

On Morris Low’s Building a Modern Japan: Science, Technology, and Medicine in the Meiji Era and Beyond

Ever since Joseph Needham published the first volume of Science and Civilisation in China in 1954, many important works have been produced on East Asian science, technology, and medicine in the pre-modern period. The history of science, technology, and medicine in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, however, has been largely neglected. It began to attract some attention only recently with the rapid economic growth in the region. Morris Low’s edited volume of Osiris (Volume 13, 1998), with the title of Beyond Joseph Needham: Science, Technology, and Medicine in East and Southeast Asia, was a notable example of the new direction of the field: eleven out of twelve case-studies were about the nineteenth and twentieth century; and five of them were on Japanese science, technology, and medicine. Low has done a marvelous editorial job once again in his new book, Building a Modern Japan: Science, Technology, and Medicine in the Meiji Era and Beyond, which is a very valuable addition to this rapidly growing field. The Meiji era (1868–1912), which is the focus of Building a Modern Japan, was the most glorious and also most turbulent time in Japanese history. As Low states in the introduction, the Meiji Restoration “ushered in a program of modernization that involved not just opening Japan to trade with the West but participating in a global system of knowledge—‘foreign intercourse’ in the broadest sense of the term” (p. 2). During this period, Japan enthusiastically adopted Western-style systems of politics, economics, education, science, technology and medicine, and transformed itself into a modern, industrialized nation. Japanese industry began to dominate trade in East and Southeast Asian markets. The Japanese military defeated the Chinese army and navy in 1894–1895, and also vanquished Russian forces on land and at sea in 1904– 1905. Japanese science, technology, and medicine left a long-lasting influence on China, Korea and Taiwan. Japan indeed became the model for other Asian countries who were desperately trying to modernize themselves. This unique success of Meiji Japan attracted the interest of Western scholarship including history of science, East Asian Science, Technology and Society: an International Journal (2007) 1:255–258 DOI 10.1007/s12280-007-9016-3

Cultural context and social technology transfer: the case of Canton, China

This research examines social technology transfer by taking into account the role of cultural context – the interplay between geography, maritime trade, role of the state and foreign intercourse. The southern port city of Canton, China is the focus, and provides a case study to examine why Western merchants and missionaries came to this particular location to transfer various social technologies, i.e. hospitals, insane asylums, schools, colleges and homes for the blind. The relevance of these institutions to the development of China's social welfare is considered in terms of Canton's shifting welfare mix. Implications of this case study are considered relevant to critical understanding of international social welfare from an East–West perspective.

The Last Shogun: The Life of Tokugawa Yoshinobu

This text examines the life of Tokugawa Yoshinobu, born in 1837, he came to power 30 years later as the 15th successor to the Tokugawa shogunate. Though his ancestral claim and his will to become a shogun were never as powerful as those of his enemies, he far outclassed them. The book discusses how he came to power just as the Tokugawa regime was suffering the worst military defeat in its history, and Yoshinobu strongly suspected that the rule of the Tokugawas was swiftly becoming an anachronism. The book chronicles how during a year of frenetic activity, he overhauled the military systems, reorganized the civil administration, promoted industrial development and expanded foreign intercourse, all with the farsighted aim of creating a unified Japan.

Performing Marginality: The Place of the Player and of "Woman" in Early Modern Japanese Culture

Performing Marginality: The Place of the Player and of “Woman” in Early Modern Japanese Culture Yoko Takakuwa (bio) The economy of our culture can be analyzed in terms of what it has excluded in its (hi)story (histoire)—what meanings are marginalized in the textual system we inhabit. During the Edo era (1603–1867), the Tokugawa shogunate adopted a policy of seclusion in 1633 and carried it out by 1641, in order to interdict Christianity and protect home trade. Japan closed the door from then until 1854 when America forced the country to open up to foreign intercourse. It was in the course of the radical cultural paradigm shift at the turn of the sixteenth century that a woman originated Kabuki, which was developed into the most popular (and scandalous for the shogunate) entertainment representative of Edo culture for almost 260 years. Kabuki is precisely a child of the times, nurtured within the closure of Japanese culture as a result of the national policy of seclusion and exclusion of the other (strangers). Some questions arise. After Japan isolated itself from the world outside, who became the marginal other to be excluded within the economy of early modern Japanese culture? What kind of place was regarded as the margin? In this essay I propose to consider the problem of marginality in the light of current poststructuralist theory. I shall give a brief account (récit) of what are called “historical events” until the birth of the Kabuki theater, and then focus on the place allocated to the Kabuki player and the onnagata (the Kabuki female impersonator) as “woman” and their contradictory implications as the marginal other ideologically excluded in the shogunal system of differences. I It was Furyu (unusually elaborated decorativeness) dancing that led to Kabuki dancing and, later, to Kabuki. Furyu dancing became very popular in the age of wars. It originated in the religious ritual whose purpose was to console the stray souls of the dead killed in the wars and [End Page 213] see them off to the other world—outside the community. 1 People came to enjoy not simply dancing but also designing their “unusually decorative” dancing clothes and properties and making songs with clever words. It became a craze first in the then capital Kyoto after the Ohnin-Bummei disturbances (1467–1477), ushering in a century of warring states, and reached its peak in the mid-sixteenth century, involving a large group of people of different classes, including court nobles, feudal lords, and townspeople, as a dynamic outburst of people’s anxiety, zeal, and energy in the period of the country at war. In an unsettled society, people faced a crisis of identity, losing their firm belief in religion, and pursued worldly, though temporary, pleasures with a growing sense of anxiety about their life so close to death. The last and largest Furyu dancing was organized in 1604 by Tokugawa Ieyasu (1542–1616), a founder of the Tokugawa shogunate, under the pretext of performing a religious service for the repose of a former ruler, the deceased Toyotomi Hideyoshi (1536–1598). Tokugawa plotted the dancing as an appeasement policy, to make a good impression on the part of the new ruler. In the previous year he had at last instituted the new but still unstable political system in the new capital Edo, the present Tokyo. At this historical moment of transition, a woman called Okuni (1572?-1620?) created Kabuki dancing, by improving her Nembutsu (Buddhist invocation) dancing as the successor to Furyu dancing. Coincidentally, Tokugawa and Okuni both launched their new enterprises in 1603, thus making Japanese cultural history. The word Kabuki is derived from kabuku which means “leaning” or “inclination” today, but which originally meant “out of orbit,” that is, unconventional or unusual. The Japanese Portuguese Dictionary edited by Portuguese missionaries in 1603 defines “kabuki” (cabuqi) as “to conduct out of rule, or act more freely than one is allowed to,” and “kabuki-mono” as an “eccentric person, who acts more freely than one is allowed to” (17–28). At the end of the sixteenth century, the kabuki-mono designated young men with “unusual” (but perhaps fashionable) clothes and hairstyles. Some of the men wore foreign...

Meiji Primary School Language and Ethics Textbooks: Old Values for a New Society?

George Sansom once called the history of education in late nine-teenth-century Japan ‘a useful example of a reaction against foreign influence and a return to tradition in the midst of a strenuous process of “modernization”.’ Sansom and others have depicted Japanese education during the first three decades of the Meiji period (1868–1912) as follows: during the 1870s Japanese education was completely dominated by the Western philosophies and principles which were flooding a country newly opened to foreign intercourse after two and one-half centuries of isolation. This extreme Westernization led to a ‘conservative reaction’ in government and education circles during the 1880s. This, in turn, culminated in the Imperial Rescript on Education of 1890 and the emphasis on ‘traditional’ moral education which was the hallmark of schooling in the 1890S. This shift in educational policy on the part of the Meiji government has been seen as ‘part of the general swing during the 1880s away from unnecessarily close imitation of the West and back towards more traditional values.’

A Brief Documentary Survey of Japanese Pirate Activities in Korea in the 13th—15th Centuries

A Brief Documentary Survey of Japanese Pirate Activities in Korea in the 13 th—15 th Centuries By M.S. Seoh (Exerpted from the author's M. A. thesis submitted at the University of Washington in 1965) 1 Waegu (MtOD is the popular name of the Japanese pirates who plundered Korean and Chinese coastal areas from the 13 th to the 15 th centuries A. D. Pirates who ravaged the Chinese coast after this period have sometimes been identified as Chinese.1 However, with regard to those who operated around Korea during these two centuries, we can safely say that they were Japanese, with few exceptions.2 The earliest occurrence of the term Waegu is found in the Koryö-sa (¡g¡ MSli) History of Koryö. The section of the Koryö-sa dealing with King Ko-jong (M'M, r· 1213-1259) reads in part, "in the 10th year [1223 A.D.] on the 4 th moon, the day 'kapja' the Waegu invaded Kim-ju [modern Kim-hae]". After this entree, hundreds of Waegu raids are listed in the History. Additional incidents are recorded in the Yijo Sillok (3£$1??: Yi Dynasty Annals,) to which we will make frequent reference, and in several other documents.3 1.See Tömaru Fukuju et at. Wakö Kenkyu (fë'&WJO pp. 30, 34, 38-41. 2.The Koryö-sa (Vol. 134 and Vol. 135) lists some evidence that several Korean outcasts such as Hwach'ok CfcR) and Chaein (^A) gathered followers who donned garb and went on raids. However, compared to the Japanese pirates, those Koreans who had pretended to be Japanese were very small in both their numbers and in their range of activity. 3.Tongguk T'onggam (MMMiS. Comprehensive mirror of the Eastern Country ) Vol. 45, Kukjo Pogam (?$???& Precious mirror of the [Yi] dynasty ). 24\Seoh In Chinese historical records, the "Jih-pen Chuan" ( g ;$:£!) of the Ming Shih (§!¦£), we find a sentence reading, "Judging by Wen Ts'ui's defeat at the Pach'e bridge, the Waegu are apparently very strong."1 The Wu-pei Chih (MWi]Cf) describes in some detail the Waegu's tactics in battle:5 The Wo-i (fgpQ were well trained in forming the butterfly position (Hu-tiehchien WSfcW)· During action command is made by waving a fan. When a Jeader waves the fan all the troops stand up brandishing swords,..They capture our people, bring them to the road, and take them to the water. They are active only at dawn and twilight, and before and after each action they have a roll call. Besides the above records there are many other Chinese sources in which we find very detailed records on the Waegu, such as the Hsu Wen-hsien T'ung-k'ao (MÏCJ&Mif),6 Erh-shih-erh-shih Chachi (r+r%Ms£),7 and Wu-tsa-ts'u (satffl). As for Japanese historical records, first let us see some Japanese scholars' comments on the subject. Prof. Akiyama Kenzö writes: .........the complete absence of material concerning the Wako (USD in Japanese historical records seems to make it possible to erase them from Japanese history altogether. Since these Wako have been given little place in historical documents, we are unable to know about their influence.........8 Dr. Miura Kaneyuki in his article entitled "Japanese Pirates in Korea", (Chosen no Wakö, §fl!$ · îStË) says: "the lack of historical records in authentic Japanese history forces one to rely entirely upon the Yi Dynasty Annals. ........"9 Mr. Tanaka Takeo, a compiler of historical materials at Tokyo University, in his work, A Study of the History of Foreign Intercourse in the Medieval Age, writes:10 4.Ming Shih, Vol. 322, p. 145 .Wu-Pei Chih, Vol. 231, PP- 17-18. 6.Ibid, Vol. 234, Chap. 22. 7.Ibid., Vol. 34, Chap. 188 .Akiyama Kenzo (fAl-USÉiS): "The Raids of Wako in Early Muromachi Period and the Circumstances of Oei Foreign Invasion", Shigaku Zasshi, Vol. 9-1, 1930. 9.Miura, Kaneyuki (??????t): Naito Hakase Kanreki Shukuga Shinagaku Ronsö, p. 93. 10. Tanaka, Takeo (Hl Fß*): Ckusei Kaigai Koshoshi no Kenkyu (f^????F 5?©5/t'^?)> PP- 1-2, Tokyo University Press. 1959. Pirate Activities/25 .........there was a major obstacle in...

Yoseba in Ezo

Since Japan was opened to foreign intercourse, common courtesy to foreigners demanded the consideration for the locality of banishment islands, , and the Tokugawa Bakuhu removed island prison colony to the more rest-ricted islands, far from the parts of Japan where foreigners were coming. In the second year of Bunkyu, the Bakuhu restricted the island prison colony in Ezo islands to fewer islands, and decided to send the rest of the prison colony away to Ezo, the northern island in Japan, now called Hokkaido, and banished them to Okushiri island which was situated at the northern end of Hokkaido.In addition to the island prison colony in Okushiri island, a yoseba, a kind of home for criminal coolie labourers, though it was smaller in scale than the yoseba at Tsukudashima in Edo, now called Tokyo, was established, in substitution for the island prison colony, at Usubetsu in the western part. of Ezo in the second year of Bunkyu, and in this yoseba were interned prostitutes, homeles wanderers, and monks and priests who commited adul-tery.This newly established yoseba in Ezo was not the place for intimidating the home coolie labourers to severe works as in the previous banishment island, but a disciplinary place, the object of which was to make them repent their sin and to exhort them to a virtuous life through the edifying measures of fishing around the island-coast.This yoseba fishery may be said to have killed two birds with one stone because it accomplished two aims, that is, the Hakodate Bugyo's aim of developing the resources of Ezo and the aim of edifying the men interned in the yoseba.The yoseba at Usubetsu, however, was abolished in the first year of Keio, and was transferred to the Okushiri banishment island, and the yoseba coolie labourers intermixed with the banished colony in that island. This, to my regret, resulted in the fact that intrinsic edificative nature of yoseba was lost by and by and a coercive tendency was strengthened.For all that, when we take the yoseba law as a kind of judicial reform in the island prison colony punishment law and exile punishment law, which form the important themes in the problems of criminal law of Japan, we can believe that one of the improvements of the criminal law in the Edo period was realized in the yoseba.