Forced Collectivization Research Articles

Collectivisation in Lithuania 1947–1952: Decisions and Control by the CC of the All-Union CP

The profound Soviet economic, social and cultural transformation of the rural life was supposed to take place in agrarian Lithuania as well, but in the first post-war years it was postponed for some time because of the strong anti-Soviet armed resistance and the weakness of the communist government in the province. By the beginning of 1949, the guerrilla movement had already weakened considerably, the authorities in the rural areas had become stronger, the radical land reform of 1944–1948 had been completed, and in 1948 the buožės (wealthy farmers) were exiled from the villages. The conditions were favourable for the big break, i.e. the general forced collectivisation.

Күштеп ұжымдастыру кезеңіндегі Сайрам ауданының күнделікті өмір тарихы

Мақаланың мақсаты ― 1928-1930 жылдардағы күштеп ұжымдастыру мен репрессиялық шаралардың мәселесі арқылы Сайрам ауданының микротарихын зерттеу. ХХ ғасырдағы жалпы ұжымдастыру заңдылықтарына салыстыру жүргізіліп, Сайрам ауданындағы сол дәуірдің хал-ахуалының ерекшелігі айқындалды. Талдаудың нысанына 1928-1930 жылдардағы Сайрамдағы Орта Азия мемлекеттік университеті студенттерінің шағым хатының себептерін анықтау үшін мұрағат материалдары және отандық авторлардың зерттеулері алынған. Жарияланбаған архивтік материалдар мен жарияланған мәліметтер негізінде жалпы мал өсіретін шаруашылықтар мен отырықшы аудандардағы тәркілеуге ұшыраған малдың шығынының көп болғаны анықталды. Сонымен бірге мақалада халық жауы ретінде осы ауданнан репрессияға ұшыраған азаматтардың деректері туралы да тергеу қызметтерінің хаттары негізге алып баяндалды. Архивтік материалдардағы стенографиялық есеп бойынша Сайрам ауданындағы астық жинау қарсаңындағы шаруалардың, артық салық төлеуге наразылығын арқау ете отырып, сол дәуірдің тап күресі жағдайындағы кеңестік тоталитарлық биліктің іс-әрекеті көрсетілген. Авторлар Сайрам ауданының 1928-1930 жылдардағы күнделікті өмір тарихын баяндай отырып, сол студенттердің шағым хатындағы жағдайды талдау-талқылау арқылы дәуір шындығын алға тартып өзіндік тұжырымдар жасаған.

DIN OLTENIA ETERNĂ ÎN DOBROGEA FĂGĂDUINȚEI. REFLECȚII PE MARGINEA EXPERIMENTULUI TOTALITAR AL COLECTIVIZĂRII FORȚATE (1949-1962)

In both regions of Romania, Oltenia, and Dobrogea, we will find the same imposed Soviet model. Almost the same reforming antecedents in the historical segment 1945-1948. We find reactions of dissatisfaction with the abuses of the authorities (party and state), with the ”quota” system, and, subsequently, with the process of forced collectivization, in Dobrogea ended in 1957, in Oltenia, as in the rest of the country, in 1962.

The Soviet Economy in 1930

The fulfillment of the most difficult tasks of the plan for 1930 was complicated by four political and economic events. First of all, a forced collectivization campaign was carried out, which had a disastrous impact on cattle breeding. Then, the industrial management system was rearranged that had a disorganizing effect on the management process. Besides, a credit system was reformed to get rid of the vestiges of the NEP. Furthermore, to intimidate the old intelligentsia, a campaign against wrecking was conducted, accompanied by numerous arrests of old qualified specialists and the dismissal of many others. As a result, it worsened the quality of the economy management at all levels. The chaos in the management and the recruitment of numerous unskilled personnel led to a severe drop in labor productivity in industry and construction. Also, an alternative assessment of the dynamics of national income in 1930 was offered. It was shown that the national income of the USSR in 1930 increased by only 3% instead of the official growth of 19,9%. The slow growth of national income with a significant increase in the savings share in national income led to a severe drop in all material living conditions of the population, aggravated by the acute commodity deficit.

Agricultural reforms in Russia at the turn of an era (1990-1993)

In the second half of the 1980s, Soviet agricultural policy was subjected to revisionism. The problems in the agro-industrial complex had been accumulating for many years and were the result of many factors associated with the socialist system in the USSR. Whereas in the 1930s agriculture was subject to forced collectivisation, the new conditions proposed the revival of independent peasant farms and the adoption of Western experience associated with the development of farming. Private property and the future of collective farms were at the centre of the debate. This article attempts to find the following questions: why were the agrarian reforms necessary; what was their purpose; did the country's leadership have an agenda for reforms; how did the economic, legal and social aspects interact in the reform process; did the reforms succeed in achieving their objectives. The article uses documents from the Congress of People's Deputies, the Supreme Soviet and the Russian Government. Significant static material and data from sociological surveys should be noted. Legislative acts constitute a separate group of sources.

ПЕРЕИЗОБРЕТЕНИЕ ИСТОРИЧЕСКОЙ СУБЪЕКТНОСТИ КАЗАХОВ В ТВОРЧЕСТВЕ ОЛЖАСА СУЛЕЙМЕНОВА 1960-х гг.

The article is devoted to the reflection in the historiosophical works of the Kazakh poet of the sixties Olzhas Suleimenov the key plots for the formation of historical memory in the Kazakh society in the 20th century: the loss of the nomadic way of life, the museumified play of symbols of nomadic existence from the point of its no return (urban chronotope of sedentarized nomadic culture), perception the historical memory of the Kazakh society of cultural heritage of the urban culture of Central Asia, dialogized with world culture within the framework of the autochthonism concept. The studied literary and historiosophical material makes it possible to comprehend the problem of the correlation of the nomadic and the settled in the historical memory of Kazakhstan society and the presence of the cultural trauma of “being ahistorical”, overcame in the second half of the 20th century. The factors that shaped this cultural trauma include: 1) interruption of nomadic culture as a result of forced collectivization and the transfer of nomads to settled life in the 1920s–1930s; 2) historiographic tradition of describing nomadic culture as regressive and its perception by the Kazakh national intelligentsia in the 1960s–1970s through the dominant historical narrative. The way to overcome this trauma was dialogic assimilation of the cultural heritage of the medieval urban culture of Central Asia, the active archaeological research of which begins in these years in the Kazakh SSR, and inscription of the reformatted historical subjectivity in the history of civilization.

Історико-політичні аспекти освітнього процесу на Уманщині (1930-ті рр.)

The purpose of the study is to consider the peculiarities of the educational process development in the Uman region under the conditions of social and political changes in Ukraine during the 1930s. Th e research methodology is based on general scientifi c and problem-chrono- logical methods, analysis, principles of objectivity, historicism, etc. Th e scientifi c novelty lies in an attempt to highlight the ambiguous infl uence of the policy of the Soviet regime on the formation and further development of national education in the territory of the Uman district. Th e conclusions of the conducted research allow us to assert the multiface tedness of the raised problem, which has fairly wide coverage in various formats, and at the same time, is consonant with the present. Th e Soviet regime was distinguished by the total establishment of ideological doctrine with the use of repression in all spheres, including education. Th e formation of the Ukrainian education system took place in the 1920s due to the Ukrainization policy, which was curtailed at the end of the decade, moving to its reconstruction in the direction of unifi cation, the creation of a single all-Soviet system. In the diffi cult socio-economic conditions of the early 1930s, more than two dozen secondary schools and evening schools for adults functioned in the Uman district. Th ere was active development of education in the native language, considering the best achievements of pedagogical science, aimed at improving the quality of education and spreading experience. Since 1931, the state-party policy in education had been changing due to a number of decrees issued, resulting in a single centralized, ideological education system. Its functioning was negatively infl uenced by socio-economic and socio-political factors – forced collectivization, the genocide of 1932–1933, and repressions, which in 1937–1938 acquired a mass character. Both hunger and the repressive apparatus were raging in the Uman region. At the same time, considering the need for qualifi ed personnel, the authorities strengthened the educational structure as an important ideological tool for the education of Soviet people and the creation of a totalitarian society.

The destruction of the Ukrainian village by the holodomor of 1932-1933: criminal laws of the soviet authority

The article considers and analyzes a number of important legal acts adopted by the Union and Republican leadership of the Bolshevik Party during 1932 - 1933. It was made an attempt to demonstrate theirs crime and inhumane nature on the example of repressive actions against the Ukrainian peasantry. It was determined that one of the keys implementation mechanisms of this crime against the Ukrainian peasantry was the establishment of excessive grain supplies, which provided for the planned grain seizure from the peasants to the state’s favour. It is shown that essentially the grain procurement provided not only an opportunity to replenish the stock of bread for sale abroad, but was a convenient and profitable state’s way to deal with the rebellious Ukrainian peasantry. It was found that under the guise of grain procurement, fighting against speculation, embezzlement, and sabotage, the government issued laws that effectively legitimized the extermination of the Ukrainian peasantry. A thorough analysis of a number of regulations adopted by the Soviet authorities during the study period and confirm the thesis of the artificial nature of the Holodomor, which in turn is an extremely important and urgent task in modern historical and legal science to preserve historical memory ukrainians. It has been proved that the legal nihilism of Stalin’s totalitarian dictatorship, embodied in a concentrated form by the anti-peasant laws of 1932-1933, convincingly proves that the Holodomor became one of the largest crimes against humanity in modern human history, that can be qualified as genocide against Ukrainians as a nation and peasants as a class by all criteria. Particular attention is paid to the criminal actions of the Soviet leadership during the forced collectivization of peasant farms and grain companies, as well as the policy of eliminating the kulaks as a class. It has been shown that the main goal of forced collectivization was to create collective farms instead of individual peasant farms, which in turn would facilitate the rapid implementation of grain procurement plans.

Modernization on Empty Coffers: Polish Minority Institutions in Early Soviet Ukraine

After the Civil War, the Bolshevik government planned to mobilize the Soviet population on a voluntary basis and installed opportunities for local self-administration. Rural soviets were the most promising initiative. National minorities received particular attention. Western Soviet Ukraine with its Polish communities provides case studies for the practical impact of these ‘affirmative action’ policies. This article explores three configurations of Polish minority institutions: (a) neighbouring rural soviets close to an urban centre, (b) neighbouring rural soviets far from any urban centre and (c) isolated rural soviets far from any larger urban centre. Whereas small and poor Polish rural soviets could not function properly, bigger and financially better-equipped ones could improve their communal life by well-equipped community centres and minority schools. Yet despite the affirmative action propaganda, the state and party institutions drained the local self-administration of their financial surplus. With a few exceptions, they did not plan to invest sparse state funds into the development of a particular Soviet Polish culture. This lack of financial commitment combined with the Polish communities’ resilience against atheist initiatives from above led the communist organizations within the rural soviets such as KNW, Komsomol, and the Pioneers to complete failure. The subsequent disappointment within the party paved the way for ideas of forced collectivization.

ИСТОРИКО-ПРАВОВЫЕ ПОДХОДЫ В ИССЛЕДОВАНИИ НАСИЛЬСТВЕННОЙ КОЛЛЕКТИВИЗАЦИИ И ДРУГИХ ПОЛИТИЧЕСКИХ КАМПАНИЙ В ОТНОШЕНИИ КРЕСТЬЯНСТВА

The presented article reveals the main approaches in assessing the legal and political acts of the Bolshevik government in the 20-30 years of the twentieth century, on the basis of which measures for forced collectivization and other political campaigns against rural residents were carried out. As a result of these campaigns, a mass famine broke out in Kazakhstan, the exact size of which has not yet been determined. Therefore, a joint study of historians and lawyers of the period of forced collectivization in Kazakhstan is important to fill in all the "white spots" in its past.

Поселения крестьян-единоличников в Калмыкии(1930–1991 гг.)

Introduction. The article examines the history of emergence and development of unauthorized settlements of individual peasants in the territory of Kalmykia between 1930 and 1991. The insight into the topic provides an opportunity to learn more about the past of certain social groups, strata, classes — and related state policies during the Soviet era. Goals. The paper primarily aims to show a history of settlements arbitrarily established by individual peasants in Soviet times. The work examines causes and factors to have resulted in new settlements across Kalmykia, analyzes official Soviet policies, relations between government agencies and such settlers. Materials and methods. The study employs the historical comparative and historical genetic methods, analyzes works by previous authors and materials from the State Archive of the Russian Federation and National Archive of Kalmykia, including new unpublished materials thus to be introduced into scientific circulation. Results. The analysis shows the emergence and development of settlements were determined by such factors as island locations, desolate and undeveloped character of lands, harsh natural conditions, persistence of settlers, and the unspoken support from authorities of Priyutnensky District in earliest years of existence. The paper presumes it be also very important to take into account the fact unauthorized settlements had been initiated by individuals who — unlike kulaks — were considered unconscious, ‘lost’ people, and not socially alien elements. Most of the ‘unauthorized settlers’ were ones to have avoided dekulakization, the wealthiest ones had been able to liquidate their farms before lists of the to be dekulakized were compiled. Authorities identified such settlements as kulak ones, although in formal parameters those were socially different. Conclusions. Unauthorized settlements of individual peasants in Kalmykia appeared as a result of forced collectivization and served a manifested protest against official restriction policies. The collectivization movement and sociocultural ideology kept them under constant pressure, but two settlements did survive to resist for decades to come. In general, the Soviet period witnessed a success in eliminating unauthorized settlements of individual proprietors.

1960 жылдардағы Олжас Сүлейменов шығармашылығындағы қазақтардың көшпелілер мәдениетінің тарихи маңызын қайта жандандыру арқылы мәдениеттің жетіспеушілігін жою

The article is devoted to the reflection on the historiosophical works of the Kazakh poet of the sixties Olzhas Suleimenov, the key plot for the Kazakhs to acquire multiple identities and historical subjectivity in the 20th century: the loss of the nomadic way of life, the museumified play of symbols of nomadic existence from the point of its no return (urban chronotope of sedentarized nomadic culture), the reception of historical memory of the post-nomads of the heritage of the medieval urban culture of Central Asia, the dialogue of the new historical subjectivity with the world culture (inscribing the national into the planetary) and the reinvention of its images, seen by the Kazakh intelligentsia in the reflections of ancient history. The studied literary and historiosophical material make it possible to comprehend the issue of the correlation between nomadic and sedentary in the historical memory of Kazakhstani society and the presence of a cultural trauma of “non-historicality” here, overcome in the second half of the 20th century. The factors that formed this cultural trauma include 1) the interruption of nomadic culture as a result of forced collectivization and sedentarization of the 1920s -1930s; 2) the historiographic tradition of describing nomadic culture as regressive and its perception by the Kazakh national intelligentsia in the 1960s and 1970s through the dominant historical narrative. The way to overcome this trauma was the reception of the cultural heritage of the medieval urban culture of Central Asia, the active archaeological research of which began in these years in the Kazakh SSR and the inscribing of a reinvented historical subjectivity in the world history of civilization, which, in turn, contributed to the formationof multiple identities at the level of representation of historical memory.

Ел тағдырын екшеген тарлан тарихшы

Doctor of Historical Sciences, Professor, Honorary Member of the National Academy of Sciences of the Republic of Kazakhstan, Academician of the Academy of Social Sciences of Kazakhstan, Honorary Head of the Department of al-Farabi KazNU, Director of the Republican Center for the Study of Traditional Civilizations of Central Asia Talas Omarbekuly Omarbekov (1948-2021) left a brilliant mark on the scientific and social life of the Republic.T. Omarbekov was one of the first Kazakh scientists to turn to the study of the so-called «blank page» in the national history at the beginning of independence. On the basis of previously unknown 139А.М. Азмұханова Turkic Studies Journal 2 (2022) 130-140archival documents and new methodological approaches, he managed to convey to the general public the truth about the tragic events of the period of forced collectivization and anti-Soviet uprisings. The study of the causes and consequences of the great famine of 1932-1933 in the Kazakh steppe takes a special place among his scientific works.The next direction of scientific research of T. Omarbekov were the problems related to ancient and medieval history of Kazakhstan. He made a great contribution to the research of the history of the origin of the Kazakh people, the emergence and formation of its statehood. Thanks to the enormous efforts he made when he was at the head of the historical research center «Alash», the basic monographs «History of Kazakh clans and tribes», «Ethnic history of Kazakhs», «Kazakh statehood: the history of kaganates, ulus and khanates», «Kazakh khans» and others were published. T. Omarbekov devoted the last decade of his life to the study of the ethnic history of the Turkic peoples of the Great Steppe. He headed several research projects in this direction and later was the head of the Republican Center for the Study of Traditional Civilizations of Central Asia. As a result of the fruitful work of the team of the scientific institution headed by him, he managed to publish the monograph «History of the Civilization of the Nomads of Central Asia», a collection of essays «Questions of the History of Traditional Civilization in Central Asia», a four-volume textbook «History of Kazakhstan», as well as several teaching aids.T. Omarbekov combined the qualities the qualities of a remarkable historian, a talented publicist and a public figure, which is reflected in his active cooperation with the media and numerous publications in journals. The scientist’s works were published not only in Kazakhstan, but also in foreign research journals.T. Omarbekov was an excellent mentor and managed to establish his own scientific school. Under his guidance, 7 Doctors of science and 34 Candidates of science defended their dissertations, as well as about a dozen PhDs in the field of history.

THE HISTORY OF RISES AGAINST THE FORCED COLLECTIVIZATION OF THE SOVIET POWER IN THE 20-30s of the XX CENTURY

The article examines the history of the popular uprising against violent collectivization in the Soviet style in Kazakhstan, which began in the late 1980s and gained independence in the late 1980s. Anti-Soviet, anti-Soviet uprisings of the Soviet era, including the unique Suzak uprising, were not studied until the period of independence. There is a lot of information about the Suzakov uprising both in the archives and in official documents. He recalls the memories of an old man who witnessed historical events and witnessed the sad stories of those who witnessed them in private. In addition, the article analyzes significant research work that can fully correspond to the processes of political, social and economic development that took place in the 20-30s of the twentieth century. The article provides a critical analysis of the opinions and historiographic works of researchers of the history of deported Kazakhstani peasants convicted of forced collectivization of Soviet-style agriculture. In particular, the works of Talas Omarbekov, Mukhamedzhan Rustemov, Zhaksylyk Rymbekov, Suleimen Tabirizovich, Dulat Turantegi, Zharylkasyn Boranbaev and Utesh Kyrgyzbaev are analyzed.

Derzhavnyi teror u zakhidnoukrainskykh zemliakh yak metod vstanovlennia radianskoi vlady

The course of historical events is studied with regard to the reunification of Western Ukraine with Soviet Ukraine. The formation of the foundations of the new state-political and territorial system with the formation of new regions of Western Ukraine is shown. The characteristics of the most important regulations on the formation of law enforcement agencies of the Soviet government and their repressive actions on the territory of the region are given. The first repressive actions were directed against the Polish servicemen and the members of counter-revolutionary, espionage organizations, the former landowners, the manufacturers, the Polish officers, the officials, and the defectors, who were at the prisons in the western regions of Ukraine. The activities of Ukrainian political parties were banned. The activity of «Prosvita», Taras Shevchenko Scientific Society was stopped and the work of cultural and educational institutions, theaters, philharmonics, museums was reorganized. The policy of forced collectivization, nationalization of the industrial enterprises, the banks was tracked on the basis of the research materials. There were four waves of deportations during the 1939–1940 years, when not only the Polish settlers and Polish civil servants of local self-government but also a group of Ukrainian foresters, members of public, political, nationalist organizations, entrepreneurs, merchants, wealthy peasants were deported. The priests of various denominations, members of the OUN underground did not escape deportation and repression. It is stated that the victorious conclusion of the war with Germany promoted realization of administrative measures to restore the Soviet power in the western Ukrainian lands. The edge of mass repression is directed against the Ukrainian bourgeois nationalists. The mass inspections were introduced under the guise of registration and population censuses. The repressive politics aims to fight the Greek Catholic clergy of the region. Strengthening the struggle against politically unreliable intelligentsia, students, Western Ukrainian literary and artistic elite, and members of Lviv organization of the Union of Soviet Writers of Ukraine is substantiated. Repressive bodies had a special attention to the assessment of the political views of the scientific and pedagogical workers of Lviv universities and the pupils of M. Hrushevskyi.

Peasants in Russia from Serfdom to Stalin: Accommodation, Survival, Resistance by Gorshkov Boris (review)

REVIEWS 365 Poles to experience immense disillusionment during the first decades of the twentieth century when dealing not with the ‘children of a common mother Poland’, but with the Ukrainian nation striving for independence (p. 555). By way of conclusion, this erudite and penetrating study makes an excellent contribution to our understanding of the Habsburg world and modern Polish and Ukrainian nationhood. The volume belongs on the shelves of all serious scholars of Galicia in the nineteenth century. Surprisingly, some shortcomings can be attributed to the book’s sponsor. In addition to the muddled treatment of the ‘Ruthenian’ language by Frank Sysyn in the preface, the use of the term ‘Ruthenian’ in reference to the language spoken by the Ukrainians in Galicia is not a winning move. Although commonly used in historiographic works, this learned term has an imperial connotation with regard to the Ruthenian inhabitants of the Austrian partition. In order to stress a certain degree of nonidentification of Austrian Ukrainians with Russian Ukrainian, which was not so obvious in Galicia from the late 1860s onward, the translator should resort to the indigenous term Rusian. Pace University Andrii Danylenko Gorshkov, Boris. Peasants in Russia from Serfdom to Stalin: Accommodation, Survival, Resistance. The Bloomsbury History of Modern Russia Series. Bloomsbury Academic, London and New York, 2018. xiii + 209 pp. Illustrations. Figures. Tables. Notes. Bibliography. Index. $102.60: £85.00. Boris Gorshkov, a visiting professor of history at Kennesaw State University, has written a synthetic history of the imperial Russian and early Soviet peasantries aimed at advanced students and non-specialist readers. Over thirteen thematic chapters that are arranged roughly chronologically, this largely well-written study covers the period from serfdom through Soviet collectivization. The focus is on the Orthodox and ethnically Russian rural population of the peasant social estate — the krest´ianstvo — in European Russia. The evolving social, economic and political lives of this peasantry is interpreted through an ‘ecological’ framework which, as Gorshkov describes, emphasizes the multi-faceted nature of peasant lives in connection to their physical, socio-economic and political environments. This framework is presented as an intermediate viewpoint between communitarian ‘moral economy’ perspectives and individualistic rational choice conceptualizations of peasant life. Throughout, Gorshkov asserts the importance of considering the Russian peasantry not as a passive, isolated (and backward) collective acted upon by elites and the state but as individuals, families or communities SEER, 99, 2, APRIL 2021 366 actively producing their own history, at least until 1917. The goal is a micro-level ‘history from below’ (p. 8) that is expressive of the Russian peasant’s ‘ecological mentality’ (p. 11). The primary chapters of Gorshkov’s volume each examine an aspect of the lived experience of the Russian peasantry, beginning with the institution of serfdom (ch. 2); proceeding through descriptions of peasant agriculture (ch. 3), gender roles and childhood (ch. 3), non-agricultural and industrial employment (chs 4–6), social mobility (ch. 7), and public engagement (ch. 8); before outlining the evolution of Russian peasant life from the abolition of serfdom in 1861 through to forced collectivization in the 1930s (chs 9–13). While the result is a concise book that sacrifices some detail for summary, albeit with some considerable repetition and odd structural choices, Gorshkov does several things worth commending. The study provides a thorough and useful introduction and survey of a large secondary literature across several disciplines and sub-fields (although this reviewer would have appreciated more careful citations and critical discussion of important sources and secondary literature). Throughout the book, Gorshkov offers a valuable corrective by emphasizing the critical importance of non-grain agriculture activities in the economic lives of the Russian peasantry. From livestock, to forest products, to a variety of cottage industries and local wage employment opportunities, to migration and industrial work, peasant economic activity was rarely grounded solely in grain cultivation, with the particular mix of occupations dependent on the prevailing environmental, market and policy conditions. Finally, there are certain topics — peasant childhood and the growing involvement of peasants in Russian civic and political life over period are stand outs — where Gorshkov’s original archival and primary source work does generate novel insights. In such a work of synthetic history, particularly...

Kazakh nomads: the road to socialism

The article deals with the history of socio-economic modernization of Kazakhstan in the 1920s-1930s. Based on the methodology of interdisciplinary approach the author has revealed the micro-sketches of the process of forced collectivization and its consequences. The relevance of the proposed study is the need to develop, a platform generally accepted historical concept of the Sovietization of the Kazakh aul, the definition of its regional specificity to understand the causes of such disastrous consequences. The spearhead of the permanent violence in the Kazakh steppe was directed to the eradication of the kin networks of the Kazakh aul and the formation of the Soviet identity of the Kazakh aul. The path to socialism destroyed the structural elements of the social life and traditional culture of the Kazakhs. Adaptation processes of Kazakh people conditioned new rules of Soviet social life, combined with applied survival strategies and practices of conformist behaviour. The content of the article is based on the analysis of adaptation practices of Kazakh nomads on documents and materials from archival fonds. The author shows daily, individual strategies of adaptation and survival of the population, in conditions of implementation of the program of social and economic modernization of the Kazakh aul. The result of author’s research is the analysis of two behavioural levels: fleeing - migrating and adaptation, that became a consequence of economic coercion and destruction of the social layer of «the former». Kazakh auls transferred the network of tribal communications and the system of traditional values to the collective farm, forming unique «Kazakh-style collective farms». Election campaigns to the grass-roots apparatus of the Soviet power became the place of clan battles. The power actively used intra- and inter-clan conflicts for realization of strategic tasks of socialist construction. However, the status ranking of clan structures provoked unethical forms of behaviour such as denunciation, incitement, and the use of compromising materials. The documents have preserved many micro-histories which focus on the fates of individuals and the tragedy of family breakdown because of confiscation, eviction, and divorce. These fragments of oral history reveal the reasons behind the Kazakh aul’s nomadic move. To summarize, the author noted that on the one hand clan traditionality was trying to solidify itself under Sovietism, while on the other hand it was trying to escape from direct conflict by fleeing. However, all the adaptive behavioural levels taken together could not save the nomads from starvation. The «imagined community» of the Kazakhs was destroyed not so much by generic contradictions as by the political will of the Soviet state, for the sake of forming a new Soviet identity, a new Soviet society. On the way to socialism the historical memory was transformed, and the ancestral memory of the Kazakh people was destroyed

THE POLICY OF COLLECTIVIZATION DRİVE IN KAZAKHSTAN BASED ON THE FORM OF SOCIALIST RESTRUCTURING REFORM IN THE SOVIET UNION

The collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991 had different effects on the history of the Turkish peoples living in this geography. The main goal of Soviet historiography was the Bolshevik revolution and the confirmation of the victory of communism. In the modern stage of development of the Republic of Kazakhstan, the interest of researchers in the national history of the 1920-1930s has increased. This is a completely natural phenomenon, since it was during this period that the foundations of Soviet society were laid. One of the most important scientific aspects of the historical development of the country in the Republic of Kazakhstan is the history of the Stalinist policy of the Soviet government during the 20-30 years of the 20th century, known as the ‘the Great terror and in the mass repression’. The Soviet Union aimed to weaken the traditional economy of Kazakhs. That policy is considered, mainly, as the history of Stalin’s rule. The article covers the following points: how the Soviet Union destroyed the traditional structure of Kazakh people during the years of Stalin's rule, collectivization and the idea of collective farms, confiscation policy, public protest against Stalin’s collectivization policy and population losses. Thus, a large-scale plan of forced collectivization led not only to the economic crisis of live- stock farming households of Kazakhstan, but also in social and demographic conse- quences in Kazakhstan. This study is based on some historical data from the Soviet sources.

“We are not so Fuzzy to Build Riots and Rebellion...”: Attempt of Massive Exemption of German Population from the USSR to Canada in 1929.

The mass exodus of German peasants to Moscow in 1929 attracted international attention to the plight of Soviet Germans. The unexpectedly stubborn resistance of the German rural population to the policy of socialist transformations, his desire to leave the USSR for Canada, accompanied by appropriate calls for the West, reinforced the regime’s distrust of “disloyal” nationalities. As relations between the USSR and Germany worsened, prejudice grew in Moscow against the Germans as an extremely reactionary group of people that discredited the Soviet system in the eyes of the world community. The Politburo of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks (Bolsheviks) paid great attention to the “emigrants” not only because the periphery was unable to cope with this problem, but also because it was a question of Western national minorities. Moreover, this group, which in an organized manner opposed the policy of the Soviet regime, did not fit into the “class” scheme, since among the German peasants who decided to emigrate from the USSR, there were mainly middle peasants and poor people. The opposition to the Soviet system was not a social, but a national group. The regime resolved this contradiction by ceasing to consider the German peasants engulfed by the “American fever” “neutral” and collectively transferring them to the category of “class enemies”. Against the background of forced collectivization, the Kremlin regarded the mass movement of Germans for leaving the USSR as direct support for the “right deviators”, which gave this movement an “anti-Soviet character”. The belonging of the fugitives and their many supporters to the Western minority prompted the organs of the OGPU to look for the organizers of the emigration movement on the other side of the border. Peaceful emigration of Germans from the USSR turned out to be a specific, but very effective way of protesting collectivization. Its avalanche-like character, as well as the appeal for help to Germany as a “historical homeland” was considered a manifestation of disloyalty to the USSR of the entire German population of the country. Germany’s protectorate policy aimed at protecting the life, property and fundamental rights of its “diaspora” was expressed both in diplomatic pressure on the Kremlin and in specific acts of assistance to Soviet Germans. Such patronage of the Germans in the USSR inevitably aroused fears among the Kremlin leadership that they, especially in the atmosphere of impending war, pose a threat to the security of the state.

Reasons for mass revolts against the forceful collectivization of farms in the East Kazakhstan region

The article examines the state policy in relation to the collectivization of the Kazakh ASSR in the late 20s and early 30s of the XX century and the reasons for the uprisings in the East Kazakhstan region. In the region of East Kazakhstan historiography of the Soviet period and the Soviet government on the reasons for the peasants‘ revolt against the collectivization policy envisaged in the post-Soviet period. The author’s research assesses the direction of research on the causes of the uprisings of the Soviet period, its reliability and influence on state policy. Currently, the directions and features of modern research are analyzed in detail, and the goals are clearly defined. After analyzing the works published after the 90s of the XX century, they were not published during the Soviet period, used new archival documents, expanded the field of research, and made conclusions of new quality. The study identified the political, social, economic, and cultural causes of the uprisings against mass forced collectivization in the late and early 30s of the twentieth century. The article analyzes the relationship of collectivization policy with uprisings in the modern East Kazakhstan region and in other regions.