Foam Injection Research Articles

Performance of the polyurethane foam injection technique for road maintenance applications

Road infrastructure plays an important role in strengthening transportation and driving the economic advancement of countries. However, the increasing traffic volume has accelerated road deterioration, particularly at critical points like bridge-road junctions. Traditional repair methods involving demolition and reconstruction lead to extended closures and high costs. This study explores the polyurethane (PU) foam injection technique as an alternative solution, which can reduce both repair time and costs. The research evaluates the application of PU foam in various road projects across Thailand, highlighting its ability to repair pavement surfaces and structures, even in severely damaged areas. Despite its advantages, the use of PU foam faces challenges due to a lack of standardized quality control. This paper proposes a set of working guidelines for PU foam injection, aimed at key stakeholders such as the Department of Highways, the Department of Rural Roads, and the Department of Local Administration. The findings underline the importance of establishing standardized methods to ensure the long-term effectiveness of PU foam in road maintenance. Future research should focus on refining these guidelines for diverse road conditions to support the sustainable development of national transportation infrastructure

Analyzing Foam Injection Dynamics in Porous Media: A Combined Computational and Experimental Approach

The study of foam injection dynamics into porous media holds numerous applications, with its primary use being the optimization of the oil extraction process. Additionally, it finds utility in various other domains, including soil decontamination techniques. This study focuses on evaluating foam injection through low-cost experiments and computational models. The model integrates a classic two-phase immiscible fluid flow in a porous media framework, augmented by a mobility reduction factor to simulate foam’s impact on gas phase mobility. Simple experiments were conducted to assess water displacement using both gas and gas-foam injection methods. Results revealed that while gas injection tends to form preferential paths rapidly, leading to gas disruption, foam injection generates a more compact front, enhancing sweep efficiency by mitigating preferential path formation. The computational model successfully reproduced the experimental findings qualitatively. This research introduces a cost-effective experiment suitable for didactic purposes, illustrating complex concepts and underscoring the complementary nature of experimental and computational methodologies in advancing engineering techniques.

The traveling foam wavefront in fractured porous medium

This paper investigates the foam injection in a fractured porous medium modeled as a thin layer surrounded by the other two. We show the formation of the single foam front using the traveling wave solution, which is characterized geometrically as a wave that moves with a constant velocity, maintaining its profile over time.To allow this analysis, we derive a formula describing the foam front velocity in n-layered porous medium extending previously known results for two layers. All the theoretical analysis was validated through the computation simulations of the realistic model using parameter data from laboratory experiments.

Predicting and optimizing CO2 foam performance for enhanced oil recovery: A machine learning approach to foam formulation focusing on apparent viscosity and interfacial tension

Carbon dioxide foam injection stands as a promising method for enhanced oil recovery (EOR) and carbon sequestration. However, accurately predicting its efficiency amidst varying operational conditions and reservoir parameters remains a significant challenge for conventional modeling techniques. This study explores the application of machine learning (ML) methodologies to develop a robust model for matching experimental values in CO2 foam flooding scenarios. Leveraging a comprehensive dataset encompassing diverse surfactants and rock types, with varied porosity and permeability, our model demonstrates accurate predictions across a wide spectrum of conditions. By focusing on key parameters such as foam apparent viscosity, interfacial tension (IFT), injected foam volume, initial oil saturation, porosity, and permeability, we unveil the pivotal role of these factors in determining CO2 foam EOR performance. Through rigorous analysis, we identify the relative importance of each input parameter, with injected foam volume, apparent viscosity, and IFT emerging as dominant factors. The most accurate model was deep neural network (DNN) (R2 value of 0.99). Higher foam viscosity and lower IFT were found to significantly enhance oil recovery rates, though their effects plateau beyond certain thresholds (apparent viscosities above 1200 cP and IFT values below 0.2 mN/m). The findings underscore the potential of ML-driven approaches in enhancing CO2 foam EOR predictions, offering insights crucial for optimizing foam flooding performance across diverse reservoir settings.

Effect of hardness on the foaming behavior, surface quality, and mechanical properties of thermoplastic polyurethane foams by chemical foaming injection molding

Effect of hardness on the foaming behavior, surface quality, and mechanical properties of thermoplastic polyurethane foams by chemical foaming injection molding

A numerical feasibility study of CO2 foam for carbon utilization and storage in a depleted, high salinity, carbonate oil reservoir

Carbon Capture, Utilization, and Storage (CCUS) offers a viable solution to reduce the carbon footprint in the petroleum industry, and foam injection presents a promising method to achieve this while simultaneously increasing oil recovery. In this work, we studied the feasibility of CO2 foam for co-optimizing enhanced oil recovery and CO2 storage in a high-salinity carbonate formation. The simulated hydrodynamic model is a depleted formation containing 30% residual oil, with three mechanisms for CO2 storage: solubility, residual, and mineralization trapping mechanisms. The results showed that after 20 years, oil recovery during foam injection was 2.7 times higher than CO2 injection, and the CO2 stored during foam flooding was 38% higher than CO2 injection. Notably, foam injection also increased CO2 storage capacity by 2.6 times, indicating the potential to store around 2 gigatons of CO2 in the simulated model. This was attributed to the ability of foam to significantly reduce gas mobility and thus form isolated bubbles through its Jamin effect. Residual trapping was the dominant trapping mechanism, contributing to over 70% of the total CO2 trapped, attributed to the reduction in the dissolution of CO2 in brine due to the high salinity of the aqueous medium. CO2 mineralization was also studied, showing the least trapping efficiency and the dissolution trend of all the carbonate minerals. This study illustrates a novel CO2 utilization and storage technique in which CO2 is concurrently sequestered while enhancing oil recovery in a depleted oil reservoir by injecting CO2 as foam. The relevance of this study lies in its potential to provide a dual benefit of reducing greenhouse gas emissions and boosting oil production, offering a sustainable approach for the petroleum industry.

Sensitivity analysis and uncertainty quantification based on the analytical solution for nanoparticle-stabilized foam flow in porous media

A model describing nanoparticle-stabilized foam displacement is proposed in this study. Based on literature experimental data, we include nanoparticle dependence in a simplified version of the Stochastic Bubble Population balance model in local equilibrium. To describe the gas–water fractional flow, we utilize quadratic Corey permeabilities. Our model consists of non-strictly hyperbolic conservation laws, and we investigate the existence of a global solution as a sequence of waves. This simpler model maintains the solution structure of classical Corey’s relative permeability model and allows us to obtain algebraic expressions to analyze the solution type and construct the water saturation profiles. We perform uncertainty quantification and sensitivity analysis of the model describing the foam injection assisted by nanoparticles, considering three relevant quantities of interest: breakthrough time, cumulative water production, and pressure drop. The analytical framework developed allows us to obtain these quantities. Our results show that the effect of nanoparticles is greater than the model’s uncertainty (for all quantities), suggesting that measuring it experimentally is statistically feasible. The presence of nanoparticles also significantly reduces the uncertainty propagation due to foam stabilization. From the sensitivity study, the endpoints of water and gas relative permeability are the most significant parameters for the breakthrough time. For the maximum pressure drop, the gas endpoint relative permeability and the concentration of nanoparticles stand out. Otherwise, water production is more sensitive to a foam-related parameter most of the time. We achieve convergence even using the classical Monte Carlo method, showing how analytical solutions drastically reduce computational costs.

On the Potential of Manufacturing Multi-Material Components With Micro/Nanocellular Structures Via the Hybrid Process of Electromagnetic Forming Injection Foaming

Abstract Multimaterial design with a combination of solid and foam structures offers a promising avenue for reducing component weight while enhancing their functionalities. However, the complexity of multistage manufacturing processes poses significant challenges to adopting such approaches. To address these challenges, this paper introduces an innovative concept known as Electromagnetic Forming Injection Foaming (EFIF), which integrates injection molding, forming, and foaming processes into a single hybrid process. This process begins with a simultaneous filling-forming phase, followed by supercritical fluid (SCF) assisted foaming controlled by electromagnetic forming. Through a series of experimental and analytical studies, this work investigates the feasibility and effectiveness of EFIF. First, the impact of pressure drop rate and pressure drop on cell size and density is examined through a specialized experimental setup enabling performing injection, forming, and foaming processes in a single operation. The potential influence of electromagnetic forming on foam injection molding is explored through experiments focusing on the effects of a polymer layer between sheet metal blank and the electromagnetic coils. Additionally, an analytical study evaluates the EFIF process by calculating expected pressure drop rates under different processing conditions and their influence on cell nucleation rates. The results showed the possibility of achieving pressure drop rates up to 1.5 × 105 bar/sec, resulting in nucleation rates up to 1.77 × 109 nuclei/cm3sec. Overall, this paper highlights the potential of EFIF to merge existing technologies into a scalable solution for manufacturing multimaterial components with micro- to nanocellular polymer foams.

Influence of plasticisation during foam injection moulding on the melt viscosity and fibre length of long glass fibre-reinforced polypropylene

Abstract The processing of long glass fibre-reinforced thermoplastics results in considerable fibre damage, particularly during plasticising. By using thermoplastic foam injection moulding (FIM) with a constant blowing agent atmosphere, fibre damage during plasticisation can be reduced. This can be attributed to the reduction of the melt viscosity on the one hand and the influence of the melting behaviour on the other. Therefore, the influence of the FIM and the process parameters on the fibre length and the fibre length distribution are analysed and compared with the influence of the process parameters on the melt viscosity.

The impact of chelating agent pH on the stability and viscosity of CO2 foam under harsh reservoir conditions

The injection of CO2 foam into the carbonate reservoir for enhanced oil recovery (EOR) has attracted special interest in the last decades; nevertheless, the understanding of the effect of liquid solution chemistry on foam stability at high temperatures and salinities is limited. Hence, this paper fully investigates the effect of chelating agents L-glutamic acid-N, N-diacetic acid (GLDA) pH, and hydrochloric acid (HCl) on the stability and viscosity of generated CO2 foam for heterogeneous carbonate formation under reservoir conditions. In this paper, Duomeen TTM and Armovis VES surfactants were utilized due to their capabilities to produce viscous CO2 foam under harsh conditions. The foamability, foam stability, and foam structure were studied at 100 °C and 1000 psi using a high-temperature and high-pressure (HPHT) foam analyzer. The measurement of CO2 foam viscosity was determined at 100 °C, 1000 psi, and 70 % foam quality using the HPHT foam rheometer. Rheology experiments and dynamic light scattering investigated the micelle’s size or aggregation behavior of surfactants. The obtained results showed that the Duomeen TTM generated unstable foam; however, foam stability and foamability improved with the decrease in GLDA pH. Armovis VES showed excellent CO2 foam performance, where the foam half-life time of Armovis VES systems was 240 min. The liquid drainage and bubble coarsening were delayed due to the formation of the viscoelastic liquid phase. The foamability of Armovis VES was improved as the GLDA pH decreased. Furthermore, the addition of HCl to Armovis VES solution presented the highest foamability. The outcomes of the HPHT foam analyzer and HPHT viscometer proved that as the pH of Armovis VES solution decreased, higher foamability was produced. The highest foam viscosity was obtained using the synergic effect of 0.5 wt% Duomeen TTM and 0.5 wt% Armovis VES (39 cp at 100/s). In comparison, 1 wt% Armovis VES presented the lowest foam viscosity (30 cp at 100/s). The outcomes of this research can provide insight into the effect of chemistry on CO2 foam and extend its application in oilfield development. This work broadens the design of novel CO2 foam formulation, leading to the improvement of sweep efficiency in CO2-EOR methods and enhance the gas trapping in carbon storage.

Calculation of foam injection ratio and regulation method of muck compressibility under shield soil chamber pressure conditions

The proper compressibility of shield muck is crucial for ensuring the safety and efficiency of shield tunneling. Foam conditioning is an effective method for improving the compressibility of muck. However, the amount of foam injected in practical construction is mostly based on experience or subjective judgment. A novel foam injection ratio calculation formula was derived based on Boyle’s law and the pore pressure calculation model. This formula comprehensively considers the impact of chamber pressure, pore water, soil gradation, and existing muck conditioning parameters on foam consumption. Starting with the premise that pore foam lifts the soil skeleton, reducing the effective stress in the soil to zero, a method for regulating the compressibility of muck in shield tunnel construction sites was proposed. This method presents the advantage of accurately quantifying the amount of foam injection. Verification results from field applications confirm that optimizing the muck conditioning parameters through this new method leads to improvements in workability, permeability, and muck compressibility, meeting the requirements for efficient shield tunneling. The fluctuation of chamber pressure is reduced, lowering the risk of tool wear. Additionally, there is a reduction of 29.96 % in average total thrust and 29.82 % in cutterhead torque, with a corresponding increase in tunneling speed by 24.42 %. Furthermore, the advantages and limitations of the proposed method were discussed.

Optimization on self-assembled ultra-micro foam system for carbon dioxide flooding

Given the problem that the conventional foam injection and salt resistance are poor, the oil displacement effect is not obvious, and it is difficult to enhance oil recovery in the ultra-low permeability and high salinity reservoirs of Yanchang Oilfield, it is imperative to study a new foam flooding agent. Based on the surfactant’s self-assembled properties, foaming agent, stabilizer and complexing agent were screened in the absence of polymer and non-alkali. Three sets of self-assembly worm-like micelle systems were screened, and then a set of carbon dioxide foaming system was selected through comparative analysis: 0.50 wt% EAPMAC-12 + 0.20 wt% SDS + 0.09 wt% TEOA + 0.08 wt% EDTA. Under this condition, its viscosity, foaming volume, foam half-life and foam composite index are 18.8 mpa·s, 531 mL, 25 min and 9956 mL·min, respectively. Under the condition of the ratio of gas to liquid 3:1, the ultra-micro foam was obtained by gas–liquid co-injection in the sand pack, and the foam was round rather than the traditional pentagonal or hexagonal shape and the size was 5–31 um, indicating that the foam had good injection. Oil displacement experiment showed the average enhanced recovery rate was 12.84 % in ultra-low permeability cores, indicating that the foam had good oil displacement effect in ultra-low permeability reservoirs.

An experimental study of epoxy-based nanocomposite for chemical consolidation in a sandstone reservoir with high clay content

Sand production poses a substantial challenge in the oil and gas field, particularly in formations lacking the requisite strength to withstand pressure differentials during extraction. Many wells produce much less than their capacity due to the need to mitigate sand production and prevent well completion and wellhead erosion. The choice of sand control method depends on various factors, such as reservoir conditions, operational methods, and economic considerations, encompassing both mechanical and chemical approaches. In response to this challenge, this study investigates the application of a novel polymer nanofluid for chemical consolidation in clay-rich sandstone reservoirs, an area of exploration yet to be fully tapped. The research aims to assess the potential of polymer nanofluids as a promising solution for sand control in clay-rich reservoirs, with the overarching goal of bolstering well productivity and mitigating the adverse impacts of sand production. Conducted at a laboratory scale, the experiments involved the injection of 1 Pore Volume of consolidation fluid into sandstone cores with 15% and 30% clay content. Subsequently, the cores were subjected to reservoir temperature and pressure conditions for a period of 24 h. The obtained results show a significant enhancement in compressive strength, exceeding 700 psi, facilitated by the polymer nanofluid. Furthermore, permeability restoration reached approximately 89%, a notable improvement compared to preceding studies. Moreover, the introduction of foam injection rendered the core surface water-wet, suggesting potential advantages for reservoir management. These findings illuminate the promise of polymer nanofluids as an effective tool for sand control in clay-rich sandstone reservoirs.

Effect of inorganic nanoparticles on polypropylene in‐mold decoration and microcellular foaming injection molding composites

AbstractIn this paper, the surface morphology of the parts was improved by the in‐mold decoration and microcellular foaming injection molding (MIM‐IMD), and the mechanical properties of the parts were improved by inorganic particles modification. The effects of different inorganic particles (CaCO3, MMT, Talc) on the rheological behavior, crystallization properties, cell structure, surface quality, and mechanical properties of the MIM‐IMD composites were analyzed through experimental research and comprehensive macro and micro characterization. It was found that the foamed composite added with MMT had the highest surface quality, the best cell structure, the minimum average cell diameter of 78.4 μm and the maximum cell density of 3.09 × 106 cells/cm3. Talc improved the crystallinity of polypropylene (PP) matrix, and the resulting mechanical properties were the most significant improvement. Tensile, flexural, and impact strength were increased by 20.3%, 11.6%, and 45.2%, respectively.Highlights The MIM‐IMD process was used to improve the surface quality of the samples. The enhancement of different inorganic particles on the properties were compared. The properties were evaluated by macro‐ and micro‐characterization. Inorganic particles can significantly improve the cell structure. Inorganic particles can greatly improve mechanical properties.

A Method of Simulating the Dissolution Behavior of Physical Blowing Agents. Dissolution Behavior of Physical Blowing Agent in Low-pressure Foam Injection Molding Process (Part 2)

A Method of Simulating the Dissolution Behavior of Physical Blowing Agents. Dissolution Behavior of Physical Blowing Agent in Low-pressure Foam Injection Molding Process (Part 2)

Feasibility experimental study on plugging leakage in goaf based on two-phase foam

Air leakage in goaf often leads to coal spontaneous combustion (CSC), which not only directly affects the safety production of mines but also causes significant environmental damage. Therefore, effectively sealing the airflow in goaf is crucial for preventing CSC. Feasibility experiments on using two-phase foam to seal air leakage in goaf were conducted, leveraging the advantages of large flow rate, wide diffusion range, and good accumulation characteristics of two-phase foam. The research results indicate that continuous injection of foam into loose media with maintained ventilation can completely seal the air leakage, with the foam capable of withstanding wind pressures of nearly 600 Pa. When the foam is used for one-time sealing with a length of 2 m, it remains effective for 60 min, and the sealing effectiveness improves with longer distances sealed against air leakage. Numerical simulation analysis and field measurements of airflow leakage in mine working faces reveal that effectively sealing the airflow passage in the goaf behind the corner of the return airway is crucial for preventing CSC. Two methods are proposed for sealing external airflow during coal mining: foam injection using a point drilling method near the heading and an incremental buried pipe injection method. Finally, the feasibility of two-phase foam sealing technology for goaf airflow leakage is analyzed from multiple perspectives including sealing effectiveness, practicality, economy, foaming process, and engineering implementation. The research findings provide new insights into goaf sealing technology, aiding in addressing safety and environmental issues caused by spontaneous combustion in goaf areas.

Endoscopic injection of lauromacrogol foam sclerotherapy for rectal cavernous hemangioma: A case report.

Rectal cavernous hemangioma is a rare, benign vascular disease that seldom causes lower gastrointestinal bleeding, characterized by a high rate of misdiagnosis and missed diagnoses. Surgical treatment is considered to be relatively effective; however, it is accompanied by certain employed in the treatment of superficial hemangioma, boasting the advantages of minimally invasive surgery, including safety, effectiveness, reduced trauma, and rapid recovery. However, there is a lack of literature regarding the application of foam sclerosing agents for gastrointestinal hemangiomas. We present a case of a 60-year-old male who was admitted to our hospital with a history of recurrent hematochezia for >1 year and worsening symptoms for 1 week. The patient's medical history was unremarkable. Following colonoscopy, nuclear magnetic resonance imaging, computed tomography, and other examinations, the final diagnosis was rectal cavernous hemangioma. Due to the patient's refusal of surgery, endoscopic foam sclerotherapy using a lauromacrogol injection was performed after obtaining informed consent from the patient and their relatives. Post-sclerotherapy, hematochezia symptoms ceased, and no adverse reactions were observed. Two months later, colonoscopy and nuclear magnetic resonance imaging showed that the hemangioma had almost completely disappeared, with only a small amount of tumor remnants, yielding a satisfactory curative effect. Our findings indicate that endoscopic injection of a lauromacrogol foam sclerosing agent is a safe, effective, and minimally invasive treatment option for gastrointestinal cavernous hemangiomas.

A non‐ionic green surfactant extracted from the Anabasis setifera plant for improving bulk properties of CO2‐foam in the process of enhanced oil recovery from carbonate reservoirs

AbstractFoam, as a gas‐in‐liquid colloid, has a higher appearance viscosity than the one of both gas and liquid that form it. Adjusting the mobility ratio of the injected fluid–oil system and increasing gas diffusion in the foam injection process increase oil production. With these properties, foam as an injection fluid in fractured reservoirs has a major effect on oil production from the matrixes and prevents premature production of injection fluid. Surfactants are common foaming agents in injection water. Saponins are known as plant‐derived surfactants for forming stable foam. This feature, along with its cheap price and availability, can make them candidates for enhanced oil recovery (EOR) by the foam injection method. However, the utilization of CO2 as the gaseous phase in foam introduces additional machanisms of CO2 injection to the oil recovery operations. In this assessment, a non‐ionic green surfactant derived from the Anabasis setifera plant was used as a foaming agent, while CO2 served as the gas phase. A series of surface tension tests in CO2 environment were performed to determine the optimal concentration of the surfactant. Foaming tests were performed by a designed foam generator. The produced CO2‐foam was then injected into a fractured carbonate plug with six matrixes (with one horizontal and two vertical fractures). Based on the results, the water–CO2 surface tension was reduced to 20.549 mN/m. The optimum salinity based on the foam stability was 10,000 ppm. The half‐life of the foam was determined to be 40 min. Also, the foam characterization showed that the foamability of the surfactant was favourable for increasing oil production so that by secondary flooding, an oil recovery of more than 66% was achieved from the fractured carbonate plug.

Study on surface quality and cell morphology of foamed components fabricated using gas counter‐pressure with core‐back and high‐pressure foam injection molding with core‐back process

Study on surface quality and cell morphology of foamed components fabricated using gas counter‐pressure with core‐back and high‐pressure foam injection molding with core‐back process

An Experimental Investigation of Surfactant-Stabilized CO2 Foam Flooding in Carbonate Cores in Reservoir Conditions

Carbon dioxide (CO2) injection for enhanced oil recovery (EOR) has attracted great attention due to its potential to increase ultimate recovery from mature oil reservoirs. Despite the reported efficiency of CO2 in enhancing oil recovery, the high mobility of CO2 in porous media is one of the major issues faced during CO2 EOR projects. Foam injection is a proven approach to overcome CO2 mobility problems such as early gas breakthrough and low sweep efficiency. In this experimental study, we investigated the foam performance of a commercial anionic surfactant, alpha olefin sulfonate (AOS), in carbonate core samples for gas mobility control and oil recovery. Bulk foam screening tests demonstrated that varying surfactant concentrations above a threshold value had an insignificant effect on foam volume and half-life. Moreover, foam stability and capacity decreased with increasing temperature, while variations in salinity over the tested range had a negligible influence on foam properties. The pressure drop across a brine-saturated core sample increased with an increasing concentration of surfactant in the injected brine during foam flooding experiments. Co-injection of CO2 and AOS solution at an optimum concentration and gas fractional flow enhanced oil recovery by 6–10% of the original oil in place (OOIP).