Floor Plan Research Articles

Acoustics in Baroque Catholic Church Spaces

After the Council of Trent (1545–1563), the Catholic Church undertook a profound renovation, which affected the spatial configuration of the churches to adjust to the spirit of the Counter-Reformation. The acoustic cultural heritage in these spaces have been studied by different researchers, proposing the joint analysis of 66 Catholic churches from the Baroque period. This study delves into the global characterisation of the sample and establishes correlations between geometric and acoustic parameters. From the acoustic analysis, it is clear that the central floor typology, as opposed to Latin cross churches, presents better average values of musical clarity in relation to their volume. The analysis of the relationship between acoustic and geometric parameters, when the sample of churches is discriminated by typology, allows for the establishment of appropriate correlations for Latin cross floor plans, single naves and basilicas, but not when the analysis is carried out for the entire sample. These correlations are a tool that allows us to evaluate acoustic parameters not measured in situ in Catholic churches of the Baroque period in a predictive way as a function of other measured acoustic or geometric parameters.

Human Perception of Floor Plan Evacuatability: How Easy is it to Evacuate?

Currently there is no easy way to rate the ease of evacuation from a building in case of fire or a shooter. Multiple tools, based on agent-based models, exist to simulate building evacuation. However, they have not been compared with human perceptual data of how easy people think it would be to evacuate from a building. This research is part of a project to establish an EASE score (Evacuation with Acceptable Simplicity in Emergencies) and validate that metric with human data. In this study, the authors asked participants to evaluate seven 2D building floor plans for ease of evacuation. There is a gap in the research on perceptions of floor plans which motivated this study’s research questions: (a) Do non-expert users agree on the ease of building evacuation? (b) What factors do viewers use to evaluate ease of evacuation?

Optimising Floor Plan Extraction: Applying DBSCAN and K-Means in Point Cloud Analysis of Valencia Cathedral

Optimising Floor Plan Extraction: Applying DBSCAN and K-Means in Point Cloud Analysis of Valencia Cathedral

Floor plan generation: The interplay among data, machine, and designer

Recent advancements in machine learning (ML) in architectural design led to new developments in automated generation of floor plans. However, critical evaluation of ML-based generated floor plans has not progressed proportionally due to the subjectivity and complexity of the assessment, particularly for large and more complex floor plans. Accordingly, a hybrid (quantitative and qualitative) floor plan evaluation scheme is introduced in this study, focusing on multiple architectural aspects. To verify the effectiveness of the proposed framework, the evaluation scheme is applied on the generated floor plans resulting from two baseline computer vision models. The models have been trained on a newly introduced large-scale floor plan dataset called Modified Swiss Dwellings (MSD). The results showed that despite the progression of computer vision models for floor plan generation, they still have difficulty capturing the more complex architectural qualities. In addition, the prospect of floor plan generation and evaluation and possible future developments are discussed.

Generative artificial intelligence tools for diverse learning styles in design education

The integration of Artificial Intelligence (AI) is transforming design education by automating processes and enhancing learning. Early exposure to AI offers students a competitive edge in critical thinking and problem-solving. AI tools can inspire space planning, improve workflow, reduce cognitive load, and foster creativity. This study explores how the VARK model, which categorizes learning styles into Visual, Auditory, Reading/Writing, and Kinesthetic, influences student engagement with AI tools. In an interior design classroom study involving 32 sophomore students, AI tools were used to create floor plans and generate 3D images. The study assessed the correlation between learning styles and technology acceptance. Results revealed no strong correlations between individual learning styles and perceived ease of use, perceived usefulness, or actual use of AI tools. However, visual and kinesthetic learners displayed higher engagement, suggesting that these modalities may benefit more from AI-enhanced design education. The study also confirmed that perceived ease of use and usefulness are critical factors in technology acceptance, aligning with the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM). The findings suggest that AI tools can be broadly effective across diverse learning styles, with a universal perception of their utility in design education. This research highlights the potential of AI to support creative problem-solving and prepare students for future challenges in a digital design landscape. While learning styles influence engagement, AI tools’ usability and educational benefits are consistently recognized, demonstrating their transformative potential in design education.

New insights into the merging behavior of pedestrians: Quantification of lane competition level

Merging behavior is a complex crowd movement pattern caused by certain architectural features and has triggered serious crowd accidents worldwide. It is not uncommon to find such merging structures on the floor plans of some underground infrastructures, which deserve more detailed studies on special crowd movement patterns to enhance the safety level. Researchers have demonstrated that the unstable emotions and competitive behaviors of pedestrians during underground evacuation need to be taken into account due to the enclosed environment. However, there are no relevant studies focused on the competition characteristics among pedestrians during the merging process in a quantitative way. The comprehensiveness and systematization of the geometric features of typical merging structures, as well as the way to create the perception of competition and conflict among pedestrians during real emergencies also need to be improved. In this paper, we carried out a series of controlled experiments in symmetric and asymmetric merging structures with different channel widths and incentive levels to investigate crowd merging behavior with competition characteristics. The density and delay time within the merging area, as well as the time interval and lane changes before and after merging are analyzed. By introducing and modifying Simpson’s Diversity Index, we proposed a new method for quantifying the competition level among pedestrians during the merging process. It is concluded that the performance of the merging area is sensitive to the channel widths and the merging layouts, and the negative effect of unbalanced walking priority is more significant under high incentive level. The lane competition level during the merging process is correlated with the effects of various geometric features, movement layouts, and incentive levels. The method proposed in this paper brings new insights into the interpretation of merging scenarios and more studies on pedestrian dynamics. We hope that this study could serve as supplementary work for other modeling or field experiment methods to jointly provide more insights into the crowd management strategies in some underground infrastructures.

Performance analysis of meta-heuristic optimization techniques for multi-objective VLSI circuit partitioning

Abstract The efficiency of various stages of physical design in the Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI) circuit can be enhanced by using multi-objective optimization techniques. The circuit is partitioned into a set of modules at the beginning of the physical design phase. This step is known as circuit partitioning. All subsequent physical design stages, like floor planning, placement, pin configuration, and routing etc, are influenced by the outcome of the circuit partitioning method being used. The efficiency of the partitioning method controls the quality of ultimate architecture. The efficiency achieved by the final product may be decreased by incorrect partitioning. This study compares the effectiveness of four Meta-heuristic optimization methods include the Genetic Algorithm (GA), Satin Bowered Bird (SBO), Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO), Simulated Annealing (SA) — in terms of number of net cut, duration of sleeping mode, and efficiency in power consumption for addressing the VLSI circuit partitioning problem. This experiment achieves K-way partitioning of the circuit that minimizes net cuts as well as maximizes sleep duration simultaneously, by evaluating optimization function. Solutions developed using GA, SBO and PSO consistently surpass those acquired using SA with respect to quality of optimal solution. The average optimum net cut and sleep duration achieved by this experiment are 10.7 and 9.9 in GA ; 11.5 and 12.3 in SBO, 11.80 and 9.10 in PSO; and 16.8 and 6.7 in SA based method respectively. This research resulted in a considerable reduction in power consumption, with the system’s average power efficiency achieved by 21.6%, 26.84%, 19.85%, and 14.62%, respectively, in GA, SBO , PSO, and SA based optimizations. The experimental results are compared with a recent publication and proposed GA, SBO, and PSO based methods achieve 18.75%, 4.17%, and 1.04% improvement in terms of average net cut respectively. The proposed GA, SBO, PSO and SA based methods also achieve 44.90%, 51.30%, 40.05%, and 18.60% improvement in terms of average power efficiency.

ROCK SLOPE STABILITY ASSESSMENT WITH PROPOSAL OF GEOTECHNICAL SOLUTIONS FOR UNSTABLE PARTS

In recent years, the lack of construction land in attractive locations, especially in urban areas, has posed increasing challenges to designers and builders. That is why projects for the construction pit protection and ensuring the permanent slopes stability are increasingly present in geotechnical engineering. This paper presents a practical example from the initial phase of the commercial building construction in a rock cut at the entrance to Vrbnik, island of Krk. Due to the lack of construction space, and the floor plan placement of the building itself and accompanying contents, the construction project planned the implementation of an almost vertical rock slope in the background of the main object. To be able to propose a conceptual solution that would ensure the permanent stability of the mentioned rock slope, during the excavation phase of the construction pit (cut), a geodetic survey of the found condition and a geotechnical-geological prospecting of the rock mass were performed. The purpose of the investigation was to determine the condition of the slope, along with detecting the quality zones of the rock mass according to different engineering classifications, and with the aim of proposing techniques that need to protect certain parts of the slope. As proof of the permanent stability of the slope, for the established parameters of the rock mass and the proposed geometry and protection techniques, a stability analysis was carried out for characteristic cross-sections.

Improvement of stage acoustics in a small circular-shaped recital hall

This paper investigates how stage acoustics can be improved by the installation of on-stage reflectors in a small recital hall with a circular floor plan. The target hall, which is designed as a second floor with a seating capacity of 533, has an average reverberation time of 1.31 seconds in the mid-frequency band at the audience seats when empty, and an average side reflection sound ratio of 0.4. The target hall, assessed as having a circular planar shape with wide left and right sides compared to its depth, is not conducive to performers. Therefore, we measured the stage acoustics according to ISO 3382-1, with a grid spacing of 1 m above the stage. We created a simulation model based on the measurement results. To enhance the stage acoustics, a movable reflector was placed on the stage, and the effective area of the stage surrounded by the reflector was varied and compared through simulation. The results indicated that as the effective area of the stage surrounded by the reflector decreased, STEarly improved. Meanwhile, in the audience, the installation of stage reflectors showed no significant difference in reverberation time or clarity, but the sound pressure level was slightly improved.

Investigate Sustainability Aspect in Spatial Configurations of Javanese Vernacular Architecture: Case Study of Joglo House

Abstract This research focuses on the unique spatial designs and variations found in the Joglo houses of Juwana, Pati, in Central Java, a region celebrated for its indigenous architecture. The Joglo house, a fundamental component of the Javanese cultural identity, is often inherited through generations without any formal written records, leaving its architectural details in scholarly discussions. The purpose of this study is to explore the spatial characteristics of spaces in the Joglo house that support the sustainability. The study employs the space syntax methodology to investigate the spatial interrelations among rooms in 16 Joglo houses then the 5 representative houses were picked to be analysed mathematically. By using the justified plan graph analysis, it identifies specific patterns and categorizations in the relationships between rooms, thereby uncovering the intrinsic architectural principles. The findings reveal that all the representative floor plans have a corridor as the most integrated space and there is a distinct separation between public and private spaces. This study bridges traditional knowledge and scholarly research, highlighting the intricate architecture and cultural significance of Joglo houses.

Passive Cooling Design Opportunities: Lessons Learned from Traditional Banjar Houses

Abstract Indonesia is an archipelago country that encompasses many different ethnicities across five large islands, one of which is Kalimantan (Borneo) Island. The river has become the lifeline in Borneo, especially for Banjar people. Banjar people have eleven types of traditional houses, each designed for specific social classes, which differ from one another in terms of materials, layout, and roof proportions. In this paper, three different types of Banjar traditional houses are compared to study the passive cooling conditions related to the proportions of the floor plan and cross-section. These three types are: (1) Bubungan Tinggi House, (2) Palimbangan House, and (3) Lanting House. The three types of houses are modelled and simulated using RWIND CFD software, by inputting the maximum and minimum wind speed (3.5 and 17 m/s), to study the potential of imitating vernacular forms that assures effective passive cooling. The result is that the Palimbangan house has the most balanced passive cooling performance through wind movements and direction. The findings could serve as an alternative for application in modern housing architecture that is sustainable and energy-efficient.

Indoor mapping accuracy comparison between the apple devices’ LiDAR sensor and terrestrial laser Scanner

ABSTRACT Indoor 3D mapping is crucial for various architectural uses, including transforming physical floor plans and side walls into digital format, offering an interactive visualization of plans, sections, and elevations, and enabling data accessibility for different engineering needs, according to the available scanning tools, 3D interior modelling for surveying indoors usually uses terrestrial laser scanners, as they provide high accuracy but are expensive and take a long time, especially in data processing. Apple recently released smartphones with LiDAR sensors that can create 3D models. This study evaluates the accuracy of these LiDAR sensors, which are nearly cost 2.5% of the terrestrial laser scanners price and produce promising 3D model for indoor mapping. Evaluation is through a comparison between Apple’s iPad Pro 2021 LiDAR sensor and the terrestrial laser scanner Trimble Tx8, a 3D model created of a hall in the university campus using the Laser Scanner Trimble Tx8 and another two-3D models of the same hall using the iPad’s Pro 2021 LiDAR sensor, one of which is dynamic acquisition since the iPad was in motion and the other is static acquisition where the iPad stayed still and scanned the same hall through multiple overlapping scans, Comparisons were conducted depending on lengths, widths, hight and area measurements. In the static acquisition model, linear readings were 1–2 cm off, while area measurements were around 1-meter square accuracy.

Indoor scene reconstruction from LiDAR point cloud based on roof extraction

Indoor scene reconstruction from LiDAR point clouds is crucial for indoor navigation, scan-to-BIM, and virtual reality. However, occlusions caused by furniture and clutter make this task challenging. This paper introduces a novel framework for reconstructing 3D models using typically unoccluded ceiling point clouds, because the ceiling is difficult to be obstructed by indoor objects and is relatively well preserved. This framework starts with extracting the roof, roof is extracted by a proposed method based on cloth simulation which can extract various shape of roofs. Then a room instance map of the scene is obtained by input the point cloud density map to Mask R-CNN. By overlapping the roof point cloud and room instance map, the whole roof is segmented into roof points of different rooms. Next, we extracted the contours of every room's roof and a new algorithm was proposed to detect connections between different rooms to restore the topological relationship between rooms, generating the scene's floor plan. Finally, by detecting the contours and connections' height, the floor plan is stretched to detected height to generate a 3D model. To evaluate the proposed method's effectiveness, experiments were conducted on two indoor LiDAR point cloud datasets, GibLayout and ISPRS Benchmark, comprising a total of 13 scenes. The results were compared with representative methods, including Floor-sp and Heat for floor plan extraction, and Polyfit and KSR for 3D model reconstruction. The experimental results show that the new method outperform existing approaches, enabling the reconstruction of highly overlapping 3D models of real scenes.

A large church in a village that failed to become a city

The Oude Jeroenskerk in the South Holland coastal village of Noordwijk is the largest, and one of the most perfectly preserved, late medieval village churches in the provinces of South and North Holland. Compared with the village in which it stands and the village churches in the surrounding area, the Oude Jeroenskerk is not just beautifully proportioned, but above all remarkably large. This phenomenon – a large church in a small settlement – is clearly interesting, yet it has never been the subject of specific research. Following the miraculous discovery in 976 of the bones of Jeroen, a missionary murdered in 856 by the Norsemen, the ancient Nordcha settlement developed into a place of pilgrimage with urban tendencies. The subsequent ‘discovery’ of Jeroen’s skull in around 1316 furthered the growth of both the village and the church. On 1 April 1398 the village was granted a city charter, but this was subsequently withdrawn on 12 March 1399.The applicants’ right to make such an application was challenged and those involved had plainly underestimated the costs associated with city status. What remained was an under-construction large church, which was eventually completed in around 1500. The construction and appearance of the Oude Jeroenskerk would seem to have been heavily influenced by the count and the local nobility, beginning with Count Dirk II, who granted permission to erect a church in 976. The architects of the brick church are unknown, but it is conceivable that the first element, a tower (1260), was the work of the master craftsman Albrecht van Velsen. In the same period he was involved in the erection of the Leeuwenhorst Cistercian convent in nearby Noordwijkerhout. The phase in which the church acquired its three-aisle, pseudo-basilica layout was possibly initiated by Count Albrecht van Beieren (1336-1404). It was he who heeded the desire of a group of ambitious villagers to elevate their village to the status of a city. This assumption is based on remarkable similarities in floor plan and elevation with the Sint Jacobskerk in ’s-Gravenhage before its radical renovation between 1434 and 1492. It is assumed that the transept (1389) in that church was commissioned by Albrecht. It was during Albrecht’s period of office that the current choir of the Oude Jeroenskerk was built (1389-1405), followed by the transept and three-aisle nave (1415/1425-1444/1500). The Sint Jacobskerk became the main church, located in the administrative heart of the county. The Oude Jeroenskerk remained an important pilgrim church up until the Reformation. A church of substantial proportions that reflected contemporary urban aspirations and still looks like an urban parish church. In terms of materials and detailing it was simple and sober and as such comparable with village churches in the surrounding area and with the Sint Jacobskerk in ’s-Gravenhage until the latter’s reconstruction in 1434. Noordwijk had the potential to grow into a small city. It had the status of a place of pilgrimage, was a religious centre and boasted a relatively large population, including members of the nobility. A large church capable of accommodating local residents and pilgrims corresponded with the urban ambitions of a group of locals. Although those briefly realized ambitions were soon dashed, what remained was the Oude Jeroenskerk: a gothic, pseudo-basilica cruciform church with a square-based tower incorporated on three sides in a three-aisled nave.

A Study on the Spatial Layout of Newly Built Townhouses in Kaohsiung City

Due to their independent structure, piping, and access, townhouses offer great flexibility in floor plan changes and high spatial autonomy, making them the mainstream housing type in Taiwan. This study focuses on row houses and examines 2022 completion cases in Kaohsiung City. It collects floor plans from 14 newly constructed buildings, totaling 227 units, and analyzes spatial dimensions including the facade width, depth, habitable room, staircases, bathrooms, and total floor area for each case. The objective of this study is to examine the spatial layout of row houses in Kaohsiung City, with the aim of providing a reference for the future planning and design of such structures. The study results showed that 81.8% of the row houses analyzed have a total floor area per unit ranging from 136 to 192 m2, a facade width between 4.1 and 6.38 m, and a building depth from 7.67 to 12.68 m. In addition, they showed a low negative correlation between the facade width and total floor area, a high positive correlation between the building depth and total floor area, and a moderate negative correlation between the facade width and building depth. The spatial distribution within these houses includes 78% allocated to habitable room, 13.1% to staircases, and 8.7% to bathrooms. The total area of habitable rooms and bathrooms increases with the total floor area of the building. However, the total area of staircases remains almost constant as the area of habitable rooms increases. Furthermore, the most common location for staircase planning is the rear-right (RB) position, while the least common is the rear-left (LB) position. Among various staircase types, the C-shaped staircase has the largest average area per floor and the highest average proportion. Conversely, the I-shaped staircase has the smallest average area and the lowest average proportion. The U-shaped staircase is the most frequently planned, whereas the C-shaped staircase is the least frequently used. This means that planning of staircase location and type significantly affects the size and layout of habitable rooms and bathrooms in townhouses.

A New Framework for Generating Indoor 3D Digital Models from Point Clouds

Three-dimensional indoor models have wide applications in fields such as indoor navigation, civil engineering, virtual reality, and so on. With the development of LiDAR technology, automatic reconstruction of indoor models from point clouds has gained significant attention. We propose a new framework for generating indoor 3D digital models from point clouds. The proposed method first generates a room instance map of an indoor scene. Walls are detected and projected onto a horizontal plane to form line segments. These segments are extended, intersected, and, by solving an integer programming problem, line segments are selected to create room polygons. The polygons are converted into a raster image, and image connectivity detection is used to generate a room instance map. Then the roofs of the point cloud are extracted and used to perform an overlap analysis with the generated room instance map to segment the entire roof point cloud, obtaining the roof for each room. Room boundaries are defined by extracting and regularizing the roof point cloud boundaries. Finally, by detecting doors and windows in the scene in two steps, we generate the floor plans and 3D models separately. Experiments with the Giblayout dataset show that our method is robust to clutter and furniture point clouds, achieving high-accuracy models that match real scenes. The mean precision and recall for the floorplans are both 0.93, and the Point–Surface Distance (PSD) and standard deviation of the PSD for the 3D models are 0.044 m and 0.066 m, respectively.

Production-oriented approach for optimal mass-customisation of floor panel layouts in cross-laminated timber (CLT) buildings

PurposeThis study aims to develop a production-oriented approach for optimal mass-customisation of floor panel layouts in cross-laminated timber (CLT) buildings. The study enables meeting building clients’ unique floor plan requirements at an optimal cost and simultaneously enhances manufacturers’ profit by minimising material and manufacturing process waste.Design/methodology/approachThe present research uses a hybrid approach consisting of field data collection, mathematical modelling, development of a Genetic Algorithm (GA) and scenario analysis. Field data includes engineered timber production information, design data and building code requirements. The study adopts the Flexible Demand Assignment (FDA) technique to formulate a mathematical model for optimising the design of mass timber buildings and employs GA to identify optimal production solutions. Scenario analysis is performed to validate model outputs.FindingsThe proposed model successfully determines the load-bearing wall placement and building spans and specifications of floor panels that result in optimal production efficiency and the desired architectural layout. The results indicate that buildings made of a single category of thickness of panels but customised in various lengths to suit building layout are the most profitable scenario for CLT manufacturers and are a cost-effective option for clients.Originality/valueThe originality of the present study lies in its mathematical and model-driven approach towards implementing mass customisation in multi-storey buildings. The proposed model has been developed and validated based on a comprehensive set of real-world data and constraints.

Egress Safety for STUDIO Residential Buildings

In recent years, the number of studio residential buildings has increased significantly in Korea, as well as in many other countries, due to changes in living patterns. In Korea especially, there have been many fire accidents in studio residential buildings, which have caused a huge number of casualties and property damages, because the buildings were not adequately equipped for firefighting. In this study, the egress safety of a typical studio residential building in Korea is analyzed. Fire simulations were performed with variables of the fire location and the capacity of the smoke exhaust system to estimate the available safe egress time (ASET); egress simulations were also performed with the variable of egress delay time, and the required safe egress time (RSET) was determined. Then, the egress safety was evaluated, and the criteria for egress safety evaluation were proposed based on the simulation results. A studio residential building with a floor plan different from the prototype was used to validate the proposed egress safety criteria. Finally, a simple evaluation model is presented to estimate the required safe egress time (RSET) without simulation and to examine the impact of bottlenecks.

Spatial Analysis with Detailed Indoor Building Models for Emergency Services

This paper presents a systematic approach to perform spatial analysis with detailed indoor building models for emergency service decision supports. To achieve a more realistic spatial application, this research integrates three-dimensional (3D) indoor building models and their attributes to simulate an emergency evacuation scenario. Indoor building models of a complicated train station with different levels of detail are generated from two-dimensional (2D) floor plans and Building Information Model (BIM) datasets. In addition to the 3D building models, spatial and non-spatial attributes are also associated with the created building models and the objects within them. The ant colony optimization (ACO) algorithm is modified to analyze the indoor building models for emergency service decision support applications. The detailed indoor models and the proposed spatial analysis algorithms are tested in simulated emergency evacuation scenarios to select the best routes during emergency services. The experimental results demonstrate that the proposed system is helpful for selecting the optimal route with the least cost at varying time stamps. Together with the developed spatial analysis framework, they have a great potential for effective decision support during emergency situations.

Development of Functionalist Principles in Architectural Heritage of Le Corbusier. Villa Savoy in Poissy

The article is devoted to one of the most famous residential building projects executed by the French architect Ch.-E. Jeanneret-Gree (Le Corbusier) in the traditions of functionalism. Villa Savoy in Poissy (1928–931) is milestone work in his activity. Upon its completion, Jeanneret-Gree joined the group of outstanding architects, who had the opportunity to freely experiment with the variety of architectural styles (modernism, brutalism, etc.). The paper presents the analysis of the main architectural and design concepts of Jeanneret-Gree, embedded in the general and floor plans, facades, and interiors of this unusual villa.