Fire Growth Research Articles

Fire extinguishment tests of electric vehicles in an open sided enclosure

Electric vehicles may represent a new type of risk and require a change in fire protection and firefighting techniques in vehicle carriers and parking garages. This study presents an experimental assessment of firefighting techniques and fire dynamics of electric cars in an open-sided enclosure. The enclosure had dimensions of 12.2 m by 7.1 m, and openings of 7.1 m by 2.4 m on either end of the enclosure. A total of nine tests were performed, of which seven were conducted on the same type of car (Renault Fluence ZE). The other two electric cars tested were Tesla Model 3 and Nissan Leaf. The electric cars were surrounded by conventional internal combustion engine vehicles, and ignition was induced by short circuit of the battery. When this was not possible an external fuel load was used. The results of the tests show a significant variation in fire growth rates. Gas temperatures peaked at 1000 °C in some of the tests. The flame spread to neighboring cars occurred between 3 min and 46 min depending on the firefighting method used.

A Machine-Learning Approach to Predicting Daily Wildfire Expansion Rate

Accurate predictions of daily wildfire growth rates are crucial, as extreme wildfires have become increasingly frequent in recent years. The factors which determine wildfire growth rates are complex and depend on numerous meteorological factors, topography, and fuel loads. In this paper, we have built upon previous studies that have mapped daily burned areas at the individual fire level around the globe. We applied several Machine Learning (ML) algorithms including XGBoost, Random Forest, and Multilayer Perceptron to predict daily fire growth rate based on meteorological factors, topography, and fuel loads. Our best model on the entire dataset obtained a 1.15 km2 MAE. The ML model obtained a 90% accuracy when predicting whether a fire’s growth rate will increase or decrease the following day, compared to 61% using a logistic regression. We discuss the central factors that determine wildfire growth rate. To the best of our knowledge, this study is the first to perform such analyses on a global dataset.

Pyrolysis model parameterization and fire growth prediction: The state of the art

A failure to accurately predict fire growth on a solid object can be frequently traced to our inability to fully resolve coupling between the gas-phase processes of flaming combustion and condensed-phase processes of pyrolysis, responsible for generation of gaseous fuels. Two key quantities that define this coupling are the rate of heat flow (or heat flux) into the condensed phase and the rate of mass flow (or mass flux) of decomposition products into the gas phase. Recognizing that an improvement in our ability to compute the latter quantity may hold the key to accurate fire growth predictions, a systematic effort has been made by the fire science community to develop progressively more sophisticated models of pyrolysis. State-of-the-art pyrolysis solvers can simulate complex, multi-reaction thermal decomposition mechanisms coupled with physically diverse heat and mass transfer processes taking place in the condensed phase. However, parameterization of these models remains a non-trivial effort requiring a large number of careful measurements and inverse modeling, which is necessary because some of the processes cannot be fully decoupled through experimental design. Here we review formulation and parameterization of the state-of-the-art pyrolysis models, discuss their limitations and the impact of these limitations on fire growth predictions.

Validation of the fire dynamics simulator (FDS) model for fire scenarios with two liquid pool fires in multiple compartments

A validation study on the fire dynamics simulator (FDS) model for fire scenarios with multiple liquid pool fires occurring in multiple compartments was performed. For fire growth in the open simulation, the mass loss rate per unit area (MLRPUA) time curve obtained experimentally was used as the input. In the blind simulation, the pyrolysis model was used. For the ventilation flow rate curve, the supply/exhaust flow rate curve measured in the experiment was used as the input for the open simulation, whereas the quadratic fan curve model was used for the blind simulation. The time-averaged datasets of the output parameters from the FDS model and experiment were plotted as data points on scatter plots. In terms of bias factor and model standard deviation of output parameters, the scatter plots under the open simulation conditions were compared with those of NUREG-1824. Under blind simulation conditions, the bias factor and model standard deviation of output parameters increased significantly. A sensitivity analysis was performed on input parameters, such as the MLRPUA time curve, supply/exhaust flow time curve, compartment leak area, and maximum differential pressure in the compartment. Within the given ranges of the sensitivity input parameter values, only changing the MLRPAU time curve significantly affected the bias factor and model standard deviation of the output parameters.

In-situ synthesis of copper phytate-hierarchically porous MOF-199 hybrid in wood towards multifunctional flame-retardant wood composite

The modern society pays growing attention on global environmental issues, public safety, and individual health, which highlights the necessity of exploring sustainable, energy-saving, flame-retardant, and anti-mildew materials for building applications. Herein, by in-situ preparing copper phytate-hierarchically porous MOF-199 hybrid (PCuM) in natural wood (W) via simple phytate induced defect engineering strategy, we reported a multifunctional low fire-hazard wood composite (PCuM-W). The phytate anion not only acted as a modulator to generate hierarchical porosity in MOF-199, but also offered high flame retardancy due to its six phosphorus groups. The copper phytate anchored on the cell wall exhibited charring and graphitizing effects and enhanced the flame retardancy and smoke suppression performance of wood. By pyrolysis, a hierarchically porous MOF-199-derived carbon formed and offered a considerably enhanced catalytic activity towards the conversion of CO. With a weight percent gain of only 13.5%, the fire growth index, total smoke production, and maximum CO production rate of PCuM-W were 74.2%, 85.4%, and 33.3% lower than that of W, respectively, showing outstanding fire-hazard-reducing efficiency that surpassed most of its counterparts. Furthermore, due to the hierarchical porosity and antimicrobial property of PCuM, PCuM-W showed excellent moisture-buffering ability and mildew resistance. This work brings guidelines for fabricating hierarchically porous MOFs to realize multifunctional materials via phytate induced defect engineering.

Discussion on the Analysis of Fire Hazard in the Central Hall of a Historical Building

This study focuses on the inadequate compliance of natural smoke exhaust windows in the central hall of a historical building in Shanghai. Taking into consideration the preservation of the authenticity of the historical structure, five fire scenarios were established to evaluate the fire hazard in the central hall based on different fire heat release rates, fire growth coefficients, number of open windows and window response times. Considering the actual conditions of the historical building and its function as a medical facility, the study also analyzed the rationality of setting fire scenario parameters for evacuation time and fire safety assessment. The research findings indicate that the upper smoke temperature is significantly influenced by the values of heat release rate and the number of open windows. Increasing the number of open windows by 60% can extend the time for the upper smoke temperature to reach a dangerous state by approximately 10%.

Fire testing methodology to develop solutions for storage and ceiling heights exceeding laboratory limits

The maximum ceiling height of the FM Global laboratory is 18.3 m. Therefore, fire protection solutions for warehouses with taller ceilings cannot be directly validated through full-scale testing. This work develops a methodology to obtain the key processes of fire growth, spray-plume interaction, and fire suppression response for an 18.9 m high roll-paper storage under a 24.4 m tall ceiling. The proposed methodology uses a heptane burner assembly at the base of the commodity array to match the fire heat release and growth rate to that of a taller storage exceeding lab capability. The burner assembly included six heptane burners and two air ducts. A series of experiments was conducted to characterize the burner design, model the fire growth in the free-burn stage, and validate controlled and uncontrolled fires in terms of the number of activated sprinklers. A final large-scale fire test used a 12.8 m high storage of Kraft paper with the burner assembly under an 18.3 m tall ceiling to validate protection recommendations for Kraft paper stored 18.9 m high under a 24.4 m tall ceiling. The test demonstrated full suppression using K360 (K-factor, lpm/bar1/2), fast response, pendent sprinklers with a temperature rating of 74 °C, supplied with a water pressure of 8.3 bar.

On the Growth of Wildland Fires from a Small Ignition Source

ABSTRACT Wildland and Wildland-Urban-Interface (WUI) fires are an important problem that may have major consequences in terms of safety, air quality, and damage to buildings, infrastructure, and the ecosystem. It is expected that with climate change, the wildland fire and WUI fire problem will only intensify. Wildland fires are often initiated by small ignition sources caused either by human intervention (hot metal fragments or burning biomass) or by natural events (lighting or sun heating). Once the wildfire or structural fire has been ignited and grows, it can spread rapidly through ember spotting, where pieces of burning materials are lifted by the plume of the fire and then transported forward by the wind, landing where they can start spot fires downwind. The ignition mechanisms for all of these fires have the common characteristic of a small and localized area of origin, with the subsequent spread of the fire to wider and larger areas. Because of the three-dimensional characteristics of this type of propagating fire, its rate of spread has an initial acceleration phase leading to an equilibrium rate of spread when the fire reaches a certain size, which is referred to as a “line-fire” type of spread. Most of the studies on wildland fire propagation have been conducted with line fires and have been concerned with characterizing the equilibrium rate of spread rather than the initial spread from a small ignition source. In this paper, some of the studies conducted to date on the subject of wildland fire growth from a small ignition source, and the physics supporting the mathematical expressions that are used to describe the growth of the fire are discussed. An attempt is also made to provide support for these works through a more fundamental approach to model the problem.

Estimating the effects of meteorology and land cover on fire growth in Peru using a novel difference equation model

Abstract. Statistical analyses of wildfire growth are rarely undertaken, particularly in South America. In this study, we describe a simple and intuitive difference equation model of wildfire growth that uses a spread parameter to control the radial speed of the modeled fire and an extinguish parameter to control the rate at which the burning perimeter becomes inactive. Using data from the GlobFire project, we estimate these two parameters for 1003 large, multi-day fires in Peru between 2001 and 2020. For four fire-prone ecoregions within Peru, a set of 24 generalized linear models are fit for each parameter that use fire danger indexes and land cover covariates. Akaike weights are used to identify the best-approximating model and quantify model uncertainty. We find that, in most cases, increased spread rates and extinguish rates are positively associated with fire danger indexes. When fire danger indexes are included in the models, the spread component is usually the best choice, but we also find instances when the fire weather index and burning index are selected. We also find that grassland cover is positively associated with spread rates and extinguish rates in tropical forests, and that anthropogenic cover is negatively associated with spread rates in xeric ecoregions. We explore potential applications of this model to wildfire risk assessment and burned area forecasting.

Study on the key parameters of vehicle fires for the growth stage in road tunnels

AbstractAs the golden period for evacuation and rescue in road tunnel fires, the fire growth stage is indispensable for security. The key parameters of this stage must be clearly defined, including the maximum heat release rate (HRR), growth time, and growth coefficient. Based on the squared model, the correlations between the key parameters are investigated according to the existing fire tests of vehicle‐related materials and actual vehicles or mock‐ups. The maximum HRR and the growth coefficient of different types of vehicles are obtained. The results show that the maximum HRR is linearly related to the growth coefficient in the fire tests of vehicle‐related materials. And it is logarithmically related in the fire tests of actual vehicles or mock‐ups. The growth coefficient and growth time represent the possibility of a disaster. The larger the growth coefficient is or the shorter the growth time is, the greater the possibility is. The maximum HRR in a fire is 2 ~ 10 MW for a car, 10 ~ 50 MW for a bus, and 50 ~ 200 MW for a heavy goods vehicle. The growth coefficient in a fire is 0.003 ~ 0.013 kW/s2 for a car, 0.05 ~ 0.15 kW/s2 for a bus, and 0.2 ~ 0.3 kW/s2 for a heavy goods vehicle. The corresponding fire growth types are slow and medium, fast, fast, and ultra‐fast, respectively. This study is beneficial for the establishment of the fire growth model and the setting of emergency response time.

Fire Risk Rating Assessment for Wood Specimens Coated with Flame Retardant

Chung's equations-II, -III, and -IV were applied to evaluate the fire risk and fire risk ratings of flame retardants. As an example, a wood specimen coated with a flame retardant was selected and tested using a cone calorimeter according to the ISO 5660-1 standard. The external heat flux was fixed to 50 kW/m2. Fire performance index-III used three variables to evaluate the initial fire risk: the time to ignition, first peak heat release rate, and first peak smoke release rate. Fire growth index-III was calculated using the first peak heat release rate, peak smoke production rate, and time to reach the first peak smoke production rate. This index is a standardized fire hazard category with poly(methyl methacrylate) as the reference material. The fire risk rating index, fire risk index-IV, is expressed as the value obtained by dividing the fire growth index-III by fire performance index-III. In this study, the methodology for fire risk rating evaluation is discussed.

In-situ polymerized zinc phytate chelated Si-C-P geopolymer hybrid coating constructed by incorporating chitosan oligosaccharide and DOPO for flame-retardant plywood

Zinc phytate (ZnPA) chelated geopolymer and in-situ polymerized chitosan oligosaccharide (COS)/DOPO explored a challenging and exciting flame retardant organic–inorganic hybrid coating via sol–gel method to find halogenated high-efficiency bio-flame retardants are widely used as decorative materials for flame-retardant plywood. Herein, the results show that the appropriated ZnPA (0.5 wt%) enhances the flame retardancy of the geopolymer coating, the peak of heat release rate (p-HRR) decreases from 136.09 to 99.39 kW·m−2, the fire growth index (FGI) dropped from 0.47 to 0.28 kW m−2 s−1, the fire performance index (FPI) climbs from 1.00 to 2.52 s·m2·kW−1, and the flame retardancy index (FRI) climbs from 1.00 to 2.52. Meanwhile, through the microstructural analysis of the residual layer, a strong, compact and non-flammable resilient residues is obtained after combustion; Moreover, the pyrolysis kinetics show that the Z.-L.-T. three-dimensional diffusion reaction model governs the pyrolysis of hybrid coatings. Appropriated ZnPA increases the pyrolysis Eα from 138.95 kJ·mol−1 to 160.75 kJ·mol−1 at 741 ∼ 890 ℃ and improves the thermal stability of the coating. The Si-C-P structure improves the formaldehyde adsorption rate by 46.5%. Therefore, this study, by preparing COS-pretreated ZnPA and DOPO to co-construct alkali-excited cenospheres-based Si-C-P coating, reveals the sustainable development of modified bio-based geopolymer flame-retardant coatings in the construction industry.

A Supertough, Nonflammable, Biomimetic Gel with Neuron‐Like Nanoskeleton for Puncture‐Tolerant Safe Lithium Metal Batteries

AbstractTo overcome the critical safety and performance issues of lithium metal batteries, it is urgent to develop advanced electrolytes with multi‐defensive properties against fire, mechanical puncture, and dendrite growth simultaneously, in addition to high ion‐conductivity. However, realizing these essential properties by one electrolyte has proved to be extremely challenging due to the inherent conflicts among them. Herein, to circumvent this challenge, a neuron‐like gel polymer electrolyte (simply referred as Neu‐PE) to simultaneously achieve supertoughness, nonflammability, dendrite‐suppression capability and self‐driven property is reported. This Neu‐PE takes advantage of nano‐phase separation regulated by highly ion‐conductive deep‐eutectic solvent. As a result, the Neu‐PE holds high ambient ionic conductivity (1.27±0.09 mS cm−1), super‐toughness and strength (22.52 MJ m−3 and 13.5±0.6 MPa), fire resistance and importantly, lithium‐metal anode protection capability. Lithium metal batteries assembled with this multi‐defensive Neu‐PE can work normally even under metal‐probe puncture or serious damage by cutting.

Fabrication of intrinsic flame-retarding rigid polyurethane foam with enhanced compressive strength and good thermal insulation

The rigid polyurethane foam (RPUF) with excellent flame retardancy, high compressive strength and good thermal insulation performance is of great importance to its widely application, especially the application in high-rise building exterior wall materials. In this work, two kinds of flame-retarding polyols (DADP and APDP) containing phosphorus and nitrogen elements were prepared via a simple salinization reaction and reacted into RPUF chains. When only 15 wt% of APDP was incorporated, the material passed the UL-94 V-0 rating with a limiting oxygen index (LOI) of 24.5% while 20 wt% of DADP incorporated to realize the same flame-retarding effect. For the RPUF/APDP15, the peak heat release rate (PHRR) decreased by 28.2% comparing to the neat RPUF and the fire growth rate (FIGRA) was the lowest 8.3, indicating the lowest flame spread speed among all the flame-retarding RPUF. The compressive strength of the RPUF/APDP15 material increased by 41.8% comparing to that of neat RPUF, mainly causing by the good compatibility and the enhancement of hardness of polyurethane via the benzene ring. Moreover, it was concluded that the gas-phase mechanism dominated in enhancing the flame-retarding effect for the RPUF material, and the APDP showed a higher flame-retarding effect with a higher content of phosphorus and nitrogen elements than that of DADP.

The REBURN model: simulating system-level forest succession and wildfire dynamics

BackgroundHistorically, reburn dynamics from cultural and lightning ignitions were central to the ecology of fire in the western United States (wUS), whereby past fire effects limited future fire growth and severity. Over millennia, reburns created heterogenous patchworks of vegetation and fuels that provided avenues and impediments to the flow of future fires, and feedbacks to future fire event sizes and their severity patterns. These dynamics have been significantly altered after more than a century of settler colonization, fire exclusion, and past forest management, now compounded by rapid climatic warming. Under climate change, the area impacted by large and severe wildfires will likely increase — with further implications for self-regulating properties of affected systems. An in-depth understanding of the ecology of reburns and their influence on system-level dynamics provides a baseline for understanding current and future landscape fire-vegetation interactions.ResultsHere, we present a detailed characterization of REBURN — a geospatial modeling framework designed to simulate reburn dynamics over large areas and long time frames. We interpret fire-vegetation dynamics for a large testbed landscape in eastern Washington State, USA. The landscape is comprised of common temperate forest and nonforest vegetation types distributed along broad topo-edaphic gradients. Each pixel in a vegetation type is represented by a pathway group (PWG), which assigns a specific state-transition model (STM) based on that pixel’s biophysical setting. STMs represent daily simulated and annually summarized vegetation and fuel succession, and wildfire effects on forest and nonforest succession. Wildfire dynamics are driven by annual ignitions, fire weather and topographic conditions, and annual vegetation and fuel successional states of burned and unburned pixels.ConclusionsOur simulation study is the first to evaluate how fire exclusion and forest management altered the active fire regime of this landscape, its surface and canopy fuel patterns, forest and nonforest structural conditions, and the dynamics of forest reburning. The REBURN framework is now being used in related studies to evaluate future climate change scenarios and compare the efficacy of fire and fuel management strategies that either enable the return of active fire regimes or depend on fire suppression and wildfire effects on forest burning.

A New Perspective on Hydrogen Chloride Scavenging at High Temperatures for Reducing the Smoke Acidity of PVC Cables in Fires, IV: The Impact of Acid Scavengers at High Temperatures on Flame Retardance and Smoke Emission

In PVC compounds, hydrogen chloride plays a fundamental role in ·H and ·OH radical trapping, lowering the flame energy during combustion. Furthermore, it yields actual Lewis acids promoting the cross-linking of the polyene sequences from PVC degradation and bringing a char layer, protecting PVC items from flames. Therefore, PVC is inherently flame-retarded. However, plasticized PVC requires flame retardants and smoke suppressants to enhance fire performance. Low-smoke acidity PVC compounds have been developed to reduce the HCl emission during combustion and, therefore, the acidity of the smoke. They contain potent acid scavengers capable of acting at high temperatures. They react with hydrogen chloride in the condensed phase, making it unavailable in the gas and even in the condensed phase, compromising the reaction to fire and enhancing the smoke produced during the combustion. The effect of the sequestration of hydrogen chloride in PVC compounds for cables by potent acid scavengers is studied in this paper through measurements of oxygen index, heat release, and smoke production. It is noteworthy that the potent acid scavengers strongly affect parameters such as the oxygen index, the fire growth rate in cone calorimetry, the specific (total) heat capacity, and the specific heat of combustion of fuel gases in micro combustion calorimetry. In some formulations, acid scavengers reduce the oxygen index below the values of the formulations without flame retardants and double their fire growth rate. In fact, they neutralize the action of antimony trioxide and Lewis acid precursors commonly used as flame retardants and smoke suppressants in PVC items, making them prone to ignite, release smoke, and spread flame. A new generation of flame retardants and smoke suppressants is needed to keep together the low-smoke acidity and the fire performance in PVC items.

A reversibly flame-retardant thermal regulation material inspired by leaf transpiration

The demand for advanced fire-retardant wearable materials has increased with a rise in fire disasters in modern society. However, traditional fabrics have some drawbacks including non-temperature regulation, non-recyclability and contaminated products. Here, inspired by leaf transpiration, we prepared a reversibly flame-retardant thermal regulation material (LPWH). Wood cellulose skeleton is expected to be a reinforced mechanical scaffold by imitating the role of leaf vein for water collection and transportation. In parallel, to mimic the mesophyll cells around leaf vein, a hydrophilic and porous phase-change hydrogel aggregation is prepared by anchoring polyethyleneglycoldiacrylate-co-sodium vinylsulfonate copolymer on cellulose fibers and subsequent in-situ assembly of sodium alginate. This precise combination creates an artificial transpiration tissue, achieving effective heat dissipation and temperature regulation via water transpiration and phase-change behavior of hydrogel aggregation. LPWH shows a longer ignited time of 150 s (71% extension), a lower total smoke release of 22.3 m2/m2 (76% reduction), together with an ultralow fire growth index of 2.4 compared to commercial fire-retardant cotton fabric. Moreover, reversible fire retardancy (30 cycles) and great mechanical property (351 times higher than pure phase-change hydrogel) are demonstrated, suggesting LPWH can be the next generation of the pollution-free, recyclable temperature-regulated fireproof suit.

Silane coupling agent and carboxymethyl chitosan co‐modified boron nitride for preparing silicone acrylic emulsion‐based flame‐retarding coatings

AbstractHerein, the synergistic effect of the silane coupling agent (KH550) and carboxymethyl chitosan (CMCS) co‐modified boron nitride (BN) on the fireproof property of silicone acrylic emulsion‐based composite is investigated to explore halogen‐free coatings for flame‐retarding plywood. Firstly, KH550 and CMCS co‐modified BN improves its compatibility with the silicone acrylic emulsion. The results show that an appropriate loading of BN (2 wt%) enhances flame retardancy. The peak‐heat release rate decreases from 86.01 to 54.95 kW m−2, with the reduced fire growth index decreasing from 0.31 to 0.16 kW m−2 s−1, and the average effective heat of combustion drops from 0.99 to 0.85 kW g−1. Meanwhile, the x‐ray diffraction results demonstrate that the co‐modified BN reacts with the phosphoric acid generated by APP decomposition and transforms into BPO4, enhances the thermal insulation of the coating. The pyrolysis kinetics confirms that the co‐modified BN increases Eα at 300–380°C by 23.4% and Eα at 380–430°C by 21.5%. The water contact angle clarifies that the co‐modified BN significantly imparts higher water resistance to the coating. Generally, the high thermal conductivity of co‐modified BN effectively achieves heat dissipation and facilitates the uniform charring of the composite coating, leading to the as‐formed resilient residues for blocking flame development.

Functionalised biochar in biocomposites: The effect of fire retardants, bioplastics and processing methods

Fire retardants, although can impart fire-safety in polymeric composites, are detrimental to the mechanical properties. Biochar can be used, in conjunction with fire retardants, to create a balance between fire-safety and mechanical performance. It is possible to thermally dope fire retardants into the pores of biochar to make it functionalised. Thus, the current work is intended in identifying a composite having the combination of the most desirable fire retardant, bioplastic, and a suitable processing method. A comparison was made between two fire retardants (lanosol and ammonium polyphosphate), bioplastics (wheat gluten and polyamide 11), and composite processing methods (compression and injection moulding). It was found that wheat gluten containing ammonium polyphosphate-doped biochar made by compression moulding had the best fire-safety properties with the lowest peak heat release rate (186 kW/m2), the highest fire performance index (0.6 m2s/kW), and the lowest fire growth index (1.6 kW/ms) with acceptable mechanical properties compared to the corresponding neat bioplastic. Thus, for gluten-based polymers, the use of ammonium polyphosphate thermally doped into biochar processed by compression moulding is recommended to both simultaneously improve fire-safety and conserve the mechanical strength of the resulting biocomposites.

Quantile Regression Analysis of the Modifying Industrial Operations Protocol’s Impact on Forestry Fire Incremental Growth

Abstract Governmental legislation, regulations, and policies are used to prevent and mitigate the negative impact of human-caused wildland fires. In Ontario, Canada, the Modifying Industrial Operations Protocol (MIOP) aims to manage and limit the risk associated with fires ignited because of industrial forestry operations while maintaining flexibility in terms of daily restrictions. The MIOP was enacted in Ontario in 2008, when it replaced the Woods Modifications Guidelines, which had been in effect since 1989. We use quantile regression to quantify how the distribution of incremental growth has changed when contrasting three prevention time periods (MIOP, Woods Guidelines, Pre-Woods) while controlling for several possible confounding variables that drive fire growth. We analyze data of industrial forestry-caused wildland fires ignited on Crown forest land in Ontario from 1976 to 2019. This type of retrospective analysis is important for monitoring the performance of Ontario’s prevention and mitigation efforts and providing insight for the future, especially in a changing environment. Our findings provide evidence of MIOP succeeding at its goal of mitigating the negative impact of ignited industrial forestry fires when compared against previous regulations.