Film Growth Research Articles

Sputtering of (111) highly-oriented nanotwinned Ag on polycrystalline Si3N4 substrates for high-power electronic packaging

Nanotwinned silver (NT-Ag) exhibits excellent mechanical and electrical properties, attributed to its high-density and (111) highly-oriented twinning structure in nanoscale. Therefore, it has recently drawn much attention in the field of electronic packaging, where it can be utilized as interconnection or metallization materials. However, it has been a critical challenge to fabricate the high-density and highly-oriented NT-Ag onto polycrystalline ceramic substrates, whose crystal structure does not support the epitaxial growth of NT-Ag films. In the current work, a high-density and highly-oriented NT-Ag film has been fabricated onto a polycrystalline ceramic substrate, i.e., NT-Ag on silicon nitride (NT-Ag@Si3N4), using the magnetron sputtering method. As results, a close-packed arrangement of high-density NT-Ag has been observed within columnar grains aligned along its growth direction, whereas the nanoindentation hardness of the NT-Ag film reached 1.82 GPa, with an electrical resistivity of 2.06 μΩ‧cm. Moreover, this study has discussed and explained the growth kinetics and mechanism of NT-Ag films, by controlling magnetron sputtering process parameters, such as sputtering power and argon flow rate. Additionally, the differences in the growth mechanism of NT-Ag on (100) Si and polycrystalline Si3N4 have also been investigated. With its superior material properties, NT-Ag@Si3N4 holds great promise in the applications of advanced packaging technology for high-power electronics.

Minimum Energy Atomic Deposition: A novel, efficient atomistic simulation method for thin film growth

Thin-film growth is an area of research concerned with complex phenomena happening at atomic scales. Therefore, molecular simulation has been an important tool to confront experimental results to theoretical assumptions. However, the traditional thin film growth simulation methods, i.e., Molecular Dynamics (MD) and kinetic Monte-Carlo (kMC) and combinations thereof, suffer from limitations inherent to their design, i.e., limitations in system size and simulation time for MD and predetermined reaction rates and reaction sites for kMC. Consequently, it is practically impossible to simulate the evolution of polycrystalline growth resulting in ∼100nm thick films with realistic stress fields and defect structures, such as grain boundaries, stacking faults, etc. In this work, we propose a versatile and efficient atomistic simulation method (Minimum Energy Atomic Deposition) which works by direct insertion of atoms at points of minimal potential energy through efficient scanning of candidate positions and rapid relaxation of the system. This method allows simulating ≥100nm film thickness while mimicking experimental growth rates and high crystallinity and low-defect concentration and enables in-depth studies of atomic growth mechanisms, the evolution of crystal defects, and residual stress build-up. We demonstrate the efficiency and versatility of the method through the deposition of Al on Si, Al on Al, and Si on Si. The simulation results are systematically compared with experimental observations of thin-film deposition, yielding consistent observations. The method has been implemented in open-source LAMMPS software, making it easily accessible to the research community.

Wrinkling of differentially growing bilayers with similar film and substrate moduli

Growth-induced surface wrinkling in constrained bilayers comprising a thin film attached to a thick substrate is a canonical model for understanding pattern formation in many biological systems. While the bilayer model has received much prior attention, the nonlinear behaviour for arrangements with similar film and substrate properties, or substrate growth that outpaces film growth, remains poorly understood. This paper therefore focuses on these cases in which the substrate’s elasticity dominates surface wrinkling. By combining analytical modelling and finite element simulations incorporating advanced path-following techniques, we characterise critical wrinkling states and explore the initial and advanced post-buckling behaviour for a wide range of film-to-substrate modulus and growth rate ratios. It is shown that the classical leading-order asymptotic expression for the critical strain is not of sufficient accuracy for film-to-substrate modulus ratios below 50, and higher order correction terms are presented. Leveraging a weakly nonlinear analytical model, we introduce a phase diagram categorising stable and unstable post-buckling regimes. Advanced path-following simulations are employed to unveil the evolution of wrinkling patterns, from initial sinusoidal instabilities to complex formations involving period doubling, quadrupling, and eventual surface creasing. These comprehensive phase diagrams, parameterised by film-to-substrate modulus and growth rate ratios, provide new insights into the rich dynamics of surface wrinkling. Finally, we demonstrate the existence of multi-stability in the advanced post-buckling regimes for bilayers experiencing substrate-dominated growth. This work contributes to the understanding of the mechanics underlying pattern formation in growing bilayers over the entire parameter regime, with potential implications for explaining biological morphogenesis and informing the development of novel diagnostic tools and artificial flexible electronic skins.

Enhanced cross-interfacial growth by thickening transition layers and tailoring grain size of columnar nanotwinned Cu films

Electrodeposited <111>-oriented nanotwinned Cu (NT-Cu) films consist of micron-scale columnar grains and they are thermally stable up to 400 °C. By adding nanoscale equiaxed Cu grains at the bottom of the NT-Cu films, anisotropic large grain growth could be triggered below 200 °C. The grains grew over 50 μm in bonded Cu–Cu films with 5.7 μm thick. Two main factors are identified for the low thermal stability and large grain growth behavior. The grain refining and transition layer thickening are effective to lower the thermal stability of the NT-Cu and reduce the required temperature for recrystallization and grain growth in the NT-Cu film. By increasing the fine-grained layer and refining the grain size of the columnar twinned grains, anisotropic grain growth can occur at 150 °C. The low thermal stability NT-Cu can be employed to completely eliminate the bonding interface at low temperatures in Cu–Cu joints. However, when the fine-grained layer is thicker than a threshold value, normal grain takes place and the bonding interface remains. The mechanism of anisotropic large grain growth was also proposed.

High-quality VO2 thin films sputter-deposited on borosilicate glass substrates for modulating solar transmission and thermal emission

M1-phase VO2 exhibits a reversible phase transition between the insulating and metallic states at T = ∼341 K, and VO2-based smart windows have been extensively studied. The smart window application requires the growth of high-quality VO2 films with a large resistivity change and small hysteresis width (ΔT) on glass substrates using a scalable deposition method such as sputtering. However, the polymorphic nature of VO2 makes it challenging to obtain high-quality VO2 films on ordinary window glasses (borosilicate and soda-lime glasses). Thus far, VO2 films sputtered on glass substrates have exhibited resistivity changes of 1.5–2 orders of magnitude and ΔT = 3–19 °C. In this study, we show that high-quality VO2 films with a resistivity change of 2.5−3.0 orders of magnitude and ΔT = 2 °C can be grown on borosilicate glass substrates via radio-frequency sputtering followed by thermal annealing. The simultaneous achievement of such a large resistivity change and small hysteresis width is highly encouraging not only for smart windows but also for other applications. With respect to the modulation of solar transmission and thermal emission with temperature, the performance levels of the produced VO2 films were 70−75 % of those expected from pure M1-phase VO2 films.

Crystalline Orientation Control Enhanced Adhesion of Perovskite to Large‐Area Readout Board for High‐Performance X‐Ray Imaging

AbstractHalide perovskites are reputed as highly promising photoelectronic materials for direct X‐ray detectors, but realizing large‐area flat‐panel imaging requires to address the compatibility issue of the electronic, surficial, and mechanical properties between the perovskite and the readout circuit board. Here, a low‐dimensional MA3Bi2I9 perovskite is chosen to achieve a good match in a balancing act between the two by exploiting an orientation control strategy for perovskite film growth. The most striking consequence of the orientation controlled growth is the excellent adhesion of the thick perovskite film to the electronic board in large area and effectively addresses the charge sharing effect, which has been notoriously difficult to achieve. The resulting detector, exhibits an X‐ray imaging area of 2.8 × 3.2 cm, with a spatial resolution of 4.0 lp mm⁻¹, the highest yet achieved for polycrystalline perovskite detectors based on TFT backplanes, and a sensitivity of 588 µCGyair−1 cm−2 while maintaining a dark current below 10 nA cm⁻2, this is also the highest value recorded to date for polycrystalline zero‐dimensional perovskite detectors. This device clearly revealing the intricate internal structures of both biological specimens and industrial products. This outcome demonstrates the potential of zero‐dimensional perovskites in X‐ray planar imaging and highlights the critical role of orientation control strategies.

Promoting subsurface Sn incorporation at Nb(100) oxide surface sites leading to homogeneous Nb3Sn film growth for superconducting radiofrequency applications

For next-generation superconducting radiofrequency (SRF) cavities, the interior walls of existing Nb SRF cavities are coated with a thin Nb3Sn film to improve the superconducting properties for more efficient, powerful accelerators. The superconducting properties of these Nb3Sn coatings are limited due to inhomogeneous growth resulting from poor nucleation during the Sn vapor diffusion procedure. To develop a predictive growth model for Nb3Sn grown via Sn vapor diffusion, we aim to understand the interplay between the underlying Nb oxide morphology, Sn coverage, and Nb substrate heating conditions on Sn wettability, intermediate surface phases, and eventual Nb3Sn nucleation. In this work, Nb-Sn intermetallic species are grown on a single crystal Nb(100) in an ultrahigh vacuum chamber equipped with in situ surface characterization techniques including scanning tunneling microscopy, Auger electron spectroscopy, and x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy. Sn adsorbate behavior on oxidized Nb was examined by depositing Sn with submonolayer precision on a Nb substrate held at varying deposition temperatures (Tdep). Experimental data of annealed intermetallic adlayers provide evidence of how Nb substrate oxidization and Tdep impact Nb-Sn intermetallic coordination. The presented experimental data contextualize how vapor and substrate conditions, such as the Sn flux and Nb surface oxidation, drive homogeneous Nb3Sn film growth during the Sn vapor diffusion procedure on Nb SRF cavity surfaces. This work, as well as concurrent growth studies of Nb3Sn formation that focus on the initial Sn nucleation events on Nb surfaces, will contribute to the future experimental realization of optimal, homogeneous Nb3Sn SRF films.

Tailoring Li assisted CZTSe film growth under controllable selenium partial pressure and solar cells.

It is still critical to prepare a high-quality absorber layer for high-performance Cu2ZnSnSe4 (CZTSe) multi-component thin film solar cell. The gas pressure during the selenization process is commonly referred to as the pressure of inert gas in the tube furnace, while the exact selenium partial pressure is difficult to be controlled. Therefore, the grain growth under different selenium partial pressures cannot be made clear, and the film quality cannot be controlled as well. In this work, we use a sealed quartz tube as the selenization vessel, which can provide a relatively high and controllable selenium partial pressure during the selenization process. To further tailor the grain growth, lithium doping is also utilized. We find that lithium can greatly promote the growth of CZTSe films as the selenium partial pressure is controlled near the selenium saturation vapor pressure. Combined with ALD-Al2O3, the crystallization quality of CZTSe absorber films is significantly enhanced and the efficiency of CZTSe solar cells achieved a significant improvement. This work clarifies the effect of controllable Se pressure on CZTSe film growth and can lead to better results in CZTSe and other multi-compound thin film solar cells.

Geometric and electronic structures of monolayer potassium fullerides on Si(111)-√3×√3-Ag

Metal-terminated silicon surfaces are a specific class of templates for growth of fulleride ultrathin films. Using scanning tunneling microscope and spectroscope, we investigate the geometric and electronic structures of KxC60 monolayers on Si(111)-√3×√3-Ag with x gradually increased to 2. Besides long-range ordered KC60 and K2C60 monolayers, a fraction-stoichiometric fulleride, K4/3C60 monolayer, is newly discovered. All these fulleride monolayers open an energy gap at the Fermi level owing to electronic correlations and Jahn-Teller distortion. The gap of the even-stoichiometric fulleride, K2C60, is prominently softened by partial electron doping from the Si(111)-√3×√3-Ag surface.

Encapsulation of Bacillus subtilis in Electrospun Poly(3-hydroxybutyrate) Fibers Coated with Cellulose Derivatives for Sustainable Agricultural Applications.

One of the latest trends in sustainable agriculture is the use of beneficial microorganisms to stimulate plant growth and biologically control phytopathogens. Bacillus subtilis, a Gram-positive soil bacterium, is recognized for its valuable properties in various biotechnological and agricultural applications. This study presents, for the first time, the successful encapsulation of B. subtilis within electrospun poly(3-hydroxybutyrate) (PHB) fibers, which are dip-coated with cellulose derivatives. In that way, the obtained fibrous biohybrid materials actively ensure the viability of the encapsulated biocontrol agent during storage and promote its normal growth when exposed to moisture. Aqueous solutions of the cellulose derivatives-sodium carboxymethyl cellulose and 2-hydroxyethyl cellulose, were used to dip-coat the electrospun PHB fibers. The study examined the effects of the type and molecular weight of these cellulose derivatives on film formation, mechanical properties, bacterial encapsulation, and growth. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) was utilized to observe the morphology of the biohybrid materials and the encapsulated B. subtilis. Additionally, ATR-FTIR spectroscopy confirmed the surface chemical composition of the biohybrid materials and verified the successful coating of PHB fibers. Mechanical testing revealed that the coating enhanced the mechanical properties of the fibrous materials and depends on the molecular weight of the used cellulose derivatives. Viability tests demonstrated that the encapsulated B. subtilis exhibited normal growth from the prepared materials. These findings suggest that the developed fibrous biohybrid materials hold significant promise as biocontrol formulations for plant protection and growth promotion in sustainable agriculture.

Effect of substrate temperature on the growth mechanism of FeSe superconducting films

Abstract Among all the iron-based superconductors (IBSs), Fe-chalcogenides (Fe-Ch) possess the advan tages of simple structure, non-toxicity, low anisotropy and the potential for high-field applications.One of the most effective methods for preparing Fe-Ch films is pulsed laser deposition (PLD). However, high quality film growth is challenged by the significant volatility difference between the iron&amp;#xD;and chalcogens (S, Se, Te), which affects stoichiometric transfer from target to substrate and subsequently impacts superconductivity. Currently, there is limited research on the correlation between the growth mechanism and preparation conditions of Fe-Ch films, particularly in explaining chalcogen volatility during deposition. Technically, PLD offers various adjustable parameters, among&amp;#xD;which the substrate temperature (Ts) is the most critical one affecting film quality. It governs particle behavior on the substrate including adsorption, diffusion, bonding reactions, crystallization processes while also strongly affecting volatilization rates. In this study, we fabricated a series of FeSe films using PLD at different Ts ranging from 25 ℃ to 750 ℃.We reveal in detail the impact of&amp;#xD;competitive processes between Se volatilization and reactive crystallization of Fe/Se on film quality. The optimal film was obtained at Ts=500 ℃ with a composition ratio of Fe1.01Se. We also investigate the correlations between Ts and film crystallinity, surface morphology, along with their influence on superconductivity. Additionally, the pinning mechanism in FeSe film grown at the&amp;#xD;optimal Ts was briefly analyzed. Our results provide reliable experimental evidence regarding the growth mechanism of FeSe films while revealing comprehensive insights into how Ts affects both film quality and performance.

Mechanistic Study on Oxygen Reduction Reaction in High-Concentrated Electrolytes for Aprotic Lithium-Oxygen Batteries.

Highly concentrated electrolytes (HCEs) have energized the development of high-energy-density lithium metal batteries by facilitating the formation of robust inorganic-derived solid electrolyte interfaces on the lithium anode. However, the oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) occurring on the cathode side remains ambiguous in HCE-based lithium-oxygen (Li-O2) batteries. Herein, we investigate the ORR mechanism in a highly concentrated LiTFSI-CH3CN electrolyte using ultra-microelectrode voltammetry coupled with in situ spectroscopies. It is found that, compared to the dilute electrolyte, the HCE prolongs the lifespan of superoxide intermediates and decelerates their migration rate to the bulk solution, resulting in a change in growth mode for the discharge product of Li2O2 from traditional two-dimensional film growth to surface three-dimensional expansion growth. This alteration reduces the cathode passivation and thus delivers the enhanced discharge capacity. Additionally, the HCE also increases the reaction energy barrier between superoxide and solvent molecules, thereby minimizing parasitic reactions and improving the cycle performance of Li-O2 batteries. Our study reveals the intricate interplay between electrolytes and oxygen intermediates and provides important insights into electrolyte chemistries for better Li-O2 batteries.

Efficient perovskite light-emitting diodes on a flexible substrate.

The surface properties of target substrates are crucial for the in situ crystallization and growth of metal halide perovskite films fabricated by the anti-solvent method. In this work, a high-quality quasi-2D perovskite film with various-n phases is fabricated on the commonly used poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene):poly(styrene sulfonate) (PEDOT:PSS) by introducing a branched polyethylenimine (PEI) modifying layer. PEI suppresses the influence of acidic surface of the PEDOT:PSS and regulates the components of the perovskite film, increasing the proportion of large-n phases. Additionally, PEI reduces the formation of defects in perovskite films, leading to higher photoluminescence quantum efficiency and longer photoluminescence lifetime. Based on this high-quality perovskite film, a flexible light-emitting diode with an ultimate current efficiency of 63.2 cd/A is achieved, nearly twofold higher than that of the device (35.1 cd/A) without a PEI modifying layer.

Effect of Electric Fields on the Decomposition of Phosphate Esters.

Phosphate esters decompose on metal surfaces and form protective polyphosphate films. For many applications, such as in lubricants for electric vehicles and wind turbines, an understanding of the effect of electric fields on molecular decomposition is urgently required. Experimental investigations have yielded contradictory results, with some suggesting that electric fields improve tribological performance, while others have reported the opposite effect. Here, we use nonequilibrium molecular dynamics (NEMD) simulations to study the decomposition of tri-n-butyl phosphate (TNBP) molecules nanoconfined between ferrous surfaces (iron and iron oxide) under electrostatic fields. The reactive force field (ReaxFF) method is used to model the effects of chemical bonding and molecular dissociation. We show that the charge transfer with the polarization current equalization (QTPIE) method gives more realistic behavior compared to the standard charge equilibration (QEq) method under applied electrostatic fields. The rate of TNBP decomposition via carbon-oxygen bond dissociation is faster in the nanoconfined systems than that in the bulk due to the catalytic action of the surfaces. In all cases, the application of an electric field accelerates TNBP decomposition. When electric fields are applied to the confined systems, the phosphate anions are pulled toward the surface with high electric potential, while the alkyl cations are pulled to the surface with lower potential, leading to asymmetric film growth. Analysis of the temperature- and electric field strength-dependent dissociation rate constants using the Arrhenius equation suggests that, on reactive iron surfaces, the increased reactivity under an applied electric field is driven mostly by an increase in the pre-exponential factor, which is linked to the number of molecule-surface collisions. Conversely, the accelerated decomposition of TNBP on iron oxide surfaces can be attributed to a reduction in the activation energy with increasing electric field strength. Single-molecule nudged-elastic band (NEB) calculations also show a linear reduction in the energy barrier for carbon-oxygen bond breaking with electric field strength, due to stabilization of the charged transition state. The simulation results are consistent with experimental observations of enhanced and asymmetric tribofilm growth under electrostatic fields.

Atomistic insight into structure and properties of oxide films formed upon oxidation of Al–Mg alloys – reactive molecular dynamics study

Oxidation phenomena on metal surfaces can be advanced using atomistic modeling for the study of the structure and properties of the growing oxide films. Molecular dynamics investigations were performed to study thermal oxidation of single-crystal and polycrystalline Al–Mg alloys with low Mg content of up to 2.5 at. %. Structure, topological atom network and surface topography of the oxide films grown on Al–Mg surfaces at 300, 475 and 663 K are determined. Mg-content and temperature dependent oxide films developed on Al-Mg alloy substrates with two-phase oxide film formation as also confirmed experimentally. It is related with a gradual long-range order formation above 475 K for (Al,Mg)-oxide films, for which solid amorphous phase predominates over crystalline phase. The 1.12-nm-thick oxide films grown at 300 K are fully amorphous and build up from (Al, Mg)-oxide which the Al2O3 dominates. Increase of Mg coefficient confirms faster Mg diffusion to oxide/alloy interface at high oxidation temperature and the formation of MgO-like network. The presence of planar crystal defect (grain boundary, GB) into Al-Mg alloy substrate governs the kinetics of oxide film growth and its structure evolution. GB also compensate internal stresses during oxide film growth. Obtained results are in good agreement with experimental observations.

Deposition of Thin Films From HMDSO Utilizing the Vacuum UV Radiation From an Atmospheric Plasma

ABSTRACTThis study presents a source for studying thin‐film deposition utilizing vacuum UV (VUV) radiation from a remote argon or helium atmospheric plasma to initiate photochemistry in the precursor gas. We aim to assess how this radiation affects the deposition process and film structure while avoiding deposition inside the plasma source or particle formation. Deposition occurs where radiation interacts with the precursor and the growing film, as well as further downstream. The measured film properties clearly show that photon interaction with the film has a significant effect. Using hexamethyldisiloxane (HMDSO) as a precursor, we achieved nearly carbon‐free silicon dioxide () film growth due to photodesorption of hydrocarbons from the growing film, as confirmed by infrared spectra and positive ion mass spectrometry.

Quantifying the Aging of Lithium-Ion Pouch Cells Using Pressure Sensors

Understanding the behavior of pressure increases in lithium-ion (Li-ion) cells is essential for prolonging the lifespan of Li-ion battery cells and minimizing the safety risks associated with cell aging. This work investigates the effects of C-rates and temperature on pressure behavior in commercial lithium cobalt oxide (LCO)/graphite pouch cells. The battery is volumetrically constrained, and the mechanical pressure response is measured using a force gauge as the battery is cycled. The effect of the C-rate (1C, 2C, and 3C) and ambient temperature (10 °C, 25 °C, and 40 °C) on the increase in battery pressure is investigated. By analyzing the change in the minimum, maximum, and pressure difference per cycle, we identify and discuss the effects of different factors (i.e., SEI layer damage, electrolyte decomposition, lithium plating) on the pressure behavior. Operating at high C-rates or low temperatures rapidly increases the residual pressure as the battery is cycled. The results suggest that lithium plating is predominantly responsible for battery expansion and pressure increase during the cycle aging of Li-ion cells rather than electrolyte decomposition. Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) measurements can support our conclusions. Postmortem analysis of the aged cells was performed using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) to confirm the occurrence of lithium plating and film growth on the anodes of the aged cells. This study demonstrates that pressure measurements can provide insights into the aging mechanisms of Li-ion batteries and can be used as a reliable predictor of battery degradation.

Recent Applications and Future Trends of Nanostructured Thin Films-Based Gas Sensors Produced by Magnetron Sputtering

The field of gas sensors has been developing for the last year due to the necessity of characterizing compounds and, in particular, volatile organic compounds whose detection can be of special interest in a vast range of applications that extend from clinical evaluation to environmental monitoring. Among all the potential techniques to develop sensors, magnetron sputtering has emerged as one of the most suitable methodologies for the production of large-scale uniform coatings, with high packing density and strong adhesion to the substrate at relatively low substrate temperatures. Furthermore, it presents elevated deposition rates, allows the growth of thin films with high purity, permits a precise control of film thickness, enables the simple manufacturing of sensors with low power consumption and, consequently, low costs involved in the production. This work reviewed all the current applications of gas sensors developed through magnetron sputtering in the field of VOCs assessment by gathering the most relevant scientific works published. A total of 10 compounds were considered for this work. Additionally, 13 other compounds were identified as promising targets and classified as future trends in this field. Overall, this work summarizes the state-of-the-art in the field of gas sensors developed by magnetron sputtering technology, allowing the scientific community to take a step forward in this field and explore new research areas.

Epitaxial growth of HfB2 thin films on Si(111) by magnetron sputtering

Epitaxial growth of HfB2 thin films on Si(111) by magnetron sputtering

Investigation of thermally induced surface composition and morphology variation of magnetron sputtered Sb2Se3 absorber layer for thin film solar cells

One of the most promising semiconductor materials for the development of sustainable thin-film solar cell technology is antimony selenide (Sb2Se3). Its excellent optical and electrical properties have drawn attention lately for potential application in thin-film solar cells. In this study, Sb2Se3 films deposited using the direct current (DC) magnetron sputtering technique have been subjected to a post-annealing process without an extra selenium supply at temperatures between 150 and 450 °C. Without an extra selenium supply, the impact of post-annealing temperature on the surface composition as well as the physical properties of the fabricated films was investigated. The overall evaluations revealed that the post-annealing temperature is highly efficient in altering the physical properties of the Sb2Se3 absorber thin films. We further observed that the post-annealing process improved the crystallization and the heat treatment temperature quite affected preferential orientation. The surface morphology of films exhibited structural deformation at high post-annealing temperatures (> 350 °C). According to optical and electrical characterizations, respectively, the optical energy gap and the resistivity of Sb2Se3 films reduced with an increment in the post-annealing temperature. Based on the XPS result, the variation in temperature of post-annealing led to a change in the surface composition of the films. The findings on the growth of Sb2Se3 thin films indicate the existence of an intermediate growth temperature that permits the growth of Sb2Se3 films to be optimized. The study’s conclusions can serve as a guide to the growth of Sb2Se3 thin films with the desired crystallinity, surface morphology, and composition for thin film solar cell applications.