Field Of Metrology Research Articles

Applications of large field of view e-beam metrology to contour-based optical proximity correction modeling

Applications of large field of view e-beam metrology to contour-based optical proximity correction modeling

GHz Figure‐9 Er‐Doped Optical Frequency Comb Based on Nested Fiber Ring Resonators

AbstractThe field of optical‐frequency‐combs (OFCs) has seen significant progress in recent years due to the advance of mode‐locked fiber lasers with low‐noise performance and long‐term reliability. With the emergence of applications, OFCs with repetition rates close to GHz have become highly sought after. However, generating GHz fiber‐based combs with low noise remains a significant challenge. In this study, a GHz figure‐9 Er‐doped OFC based on a nested fiber ring resonator is presented. By matching the free‐spectral range (FSR) of external and internal optical resonators, an 11‐fold increase in repetition rate from 82 MHz to 907 MHz is achieved. Notably, it is demonstrated that a single pulse operation with long‐term FSR matching can be achieved without any active feedback control. The comb offset frequency is detected using f‐to‐2f technique to ensure high coherence between pulses, which is distinguished from harmonic mode‐locking. The results show that the nested resonators are capable of generating GHz ultrafast OFC pulses with low phase noise via a more flexible cavity design than conventional short‐cavity solutions. This work provides a valuable contribution to the field of ultrafast laser and optical metrology, which demonstrates the potential of nested‐resonators for generating low noise OFCs with boosted repetition rate.

METROLOGICAL PROVISION OF WORKPLACE CERTIFICATION ACCORDING TO WORKING CONDITIONS

The purpose of the study is to determine the requirements for research methods, measurements with the help of FTA of harmful and dangerous production factors, which will allow to ensure a high level of attestation of workplaces according to working conditions. The task of the research includes consideration of issues related to ensuring the unity of measurements in the field of labor safety, compliance of metrological activity in the specified field with the requirements of current legislation in the field of metrology. The task of the research is also to identify problems related to the methodological support of laboratory research in the field of occupational safety, the absence of metrological requirements for laboratory research methods, metrological confirmation of FTAs, which are intended to perform workplace attestation. Currently, there are separate scientific works on the development of standard procedures for measuring dangerous or harmful factors of the production environment, there is an established norm for any harmful parameter, but there is no national order in the methodology of measuring each parameter. Individual measurement methods do not have the status of a normative legal act. Thus, at present, there are no legal acts regulating mandatory methods of measuring the parameters of harmful factors of the production environment and the labor process during workplace attestation. Analyzing regulatory documents, it can be concluded that from the main documents establishing the standardization of some factors of the working environment, the accuracy of measurements was established only for microclimate parameters. It should be concluded that in the field of labor protection, the state of ensuring the unity of measurements cannot be recognized as satisfactory. Summing up, we can come to the disappointing conclusion that for a reliable assessment of working conditions in workplaces, it is necessary to follow the methods of measurement and calculation of measurement uncertainty, which, unfortunately, are not always set out in mandatory documents. Keywords: harmful and dangerous factors, certification of the workplace, uncertainty of measurements, checking, verification.

Using Adaptiveness and Causal Superpositions Against Noise in Quantum Metrology.

We derive new bounds on achievable precision in the most general adaptive quantum metrological scenarios. The bounds are proven to be asymptotically saturable and equivalent to the known parallel scheme bounds in the limit of a large number of channel uses. This completely solves a long-standing conjecture in the field of quantum metrology on the asymptotic equivalence between parallel and adaptive strategies. The new bounds also allow us to easily assess the potential benefits of invoking nonstandard causal superposition strategies, for which we prove, similarly to the adaptive case, the lack of asymptotic advantage over the parallel ones.

Determination of the code reliability of digital angle converters

To measure the angular motion parameters of various kinds of objects, digital angle converters are widely used, which differ in the output electrical interface using a parallel or serial method of code transmission. Currently, there is no single approach to the metrological assessment of the accuracy characteristics of these digital angle converters. Such an integral assessment can be the code reliability of the converter, which characterizes the probability that the value of the measured angle corresponds to the calculated quantum, the code of which is read. Now there is an analytical method for calculating the code reliability used for digital angle converters with parallel code transmission. The article proposes an algebraic method for calculating the code reliability. Unlike the analytical method, it lacks the disadvantages of approximating the error histogram of the digital angle converters by random variable distribution functions. The conducted studies have shown that the algebraic method of calculating the code reliability can be used for the digital angle converters, with parallel and serial code transmission. It is shown that in order to fi nd the unevenness of the angular scale of the digital angle converters using a dynamic goniometer with an incremental angle sensor, it is necessary to center the array of measured error values. The results obtained can be used in measuring technology and metrology for digital angle converters calibration. They are of interest to specialists working in the fi eld of metrology of angular measurements, measuring equipment, digital angle converters manufacturers.

Improving the accuracy of a weighing scale by rigorously combining measurements

In this paper, we investigate the question of how much measurement accuracy of additive quantities can be increased by the method of combined measurements. Therefore, we consider measurements of all possible combinations of n labeled masses and then estimate the individual weights of the n masses by a linear regression approach. We present experimental results which motivate comprehensive simulation campaigns. These simulations provide valid statistical statements and reliable forecasts of the experimental results. A profound analytical treatment, in turn, supports these simulation outcomes with excellent consistency. One important achievement therein is a general analytical expression for the accuracy that can be achieved by combined measurements. It turns out this method allows to estimate the weight of mass elements with an accuracy that potentially under-runs by orders of magnitude the resolution of the scale used. In a broader sense, our work wants to promote the method and give inspirations to applications in various metrological fields beyond high-precision mass determination.

Characterisation of hydrophone sensitivity with temperature using a broadband laser-generated ultrasound source

In this work, we present a novel method for characterising the relative variation in hydrophone sensitivity with temperature, addressing a key aspect of measurements in the field of ultrasound metrology. Our study focused on a selection of miniature ultrasonic hydrophones commonly used in medical applications. The method is based on using water as a temperature-sensitive laser-generated ultrasound (LGUS) source for calibration, allowing for flexible characterisation across a wide temperature range. The measurements were performed using both the LGUS method and the established self-reciprocity method. Our results demonstrate good agreement within 5% between the two methods, validating the effectiveness of the LGUS approach. We found that the sensitivity of the tested hydrophones exhibited low temperature dependence less than −0.2% per ∘C within the studied temperature range from 17 ∘C up to 50 ∘C. The presented LGUS method offers greater flexibility than current approaches as it allows for characterisation of membrane hydrophones with small element sizes and non-electrical transducers. By combining the relative sensitivity variation obtained through the LGUS method with the standard calibration at room temperature, absolute values of hydrophone sensitivity can be determined. The expanded uncertainty of our measurements, which was evaluated at temperature intervals of 8 ∘C, was determined to be on average 10%. Our work provides valuable insights into the temperature dependence of hydrophone sensitivity and lays the foundation for further investigations in this area. The LGUS method holds promise for future enhancements, such as increased bandwidth of the LGUS source and frequency domain analysis, to explore the frequency dependency of sensitivity variation with temperature.

Measuring Instruments for Characterization of Intermediate Products in Electrode Manufacturing of Lithium‐Ion Batteries

Electrode manufacturing is considered the core of lithium‐ion battery cell production, with irreversible impacts on the electrochemical performance of the battery cell. The process chain is extensively complex, with a high number of interrelated parameters. The characterization of intermediate products in electrode manufacturing and the analysis of the correlations between process parameters and product properties can be considered a rigorous starting point to deepen process understanding and accelerate process optimization. Based on a holistic evaluation approach and a market analysis, this article provides a comprehensive overview of possible measuring instruments for intermediate products in electrode manufacturing, including the investment costs and inline/offline measurement strategy. The results can be used as a guideline for possible measuring instruments in electrode manufacturing, providing the foundation for in‐depth process analysis. The findings demonstrate the current possibilities and highlight the need for further technological advancement in the field of metrology and digitalization.

Development of Technique for Piezoelectric Element Automated Selection Process

Iezoelectric elements are one of the most popular electronic components in use and are used in many electronic devices. These devices are very effectively used in medicine, education, construction, the oil and gas industry, military equipment, metrology, and many other fields. They are part of devices that provide diagnostics of various human organs, measure the flow of pumped liquids and gases, and utilize the mechanical energy of a person and vehicles for the purpose of its subsequent conversion into electrical energy. Currently, manufacturers of piezoelectric elements present a large number of various models on the Russian market that can satisfy any customer request. The orientation of developers of electronic devices that use piezoelectric elements, is quite difficult. In addition, great difficulties arise in the selection of piezoelectric elements at the present time, when many models have become unavailable for purchase within the country. To evaluate several models of piezoelectric elements in the shortest possible time, taking into account the analysis of a large amount of data, is very difficult and time-consuming, as well as involving a large team of specialized experts for analysis. To optimize the choice of the most appropriate model and save time and human resources, an automated control system for the selection of piezoelectric elements has been implemented. The proposed system takes into account a set of the most significant properties of piezoelectric elements as well as the possibility of their purchase (availability) in the domestic market, which significantly reduces the time spent by companies in selecting the necessary devices. The system is one of the elements of the developed methodology for selecting piezoelectric elements.

An Efficient Improved Harris Hawks Optimizer and Its Application to Form Deviation-Zone Evaluation.

Evaluation of the deviation zone based on discrete measured points is crucial for quality control in manufacturing and metrology. However, deviation-zone evaluation is a highly nonlinear problem that is difficult to solve using traditional numerical optimization methods. Swarm intelligence has many advantages in solving this problem: it produces gradient-free, high-quality solutions and is characterized by its ease of implementation. Therefore, this study applies an improved Harris hawks algorithm (HHO) to tackle the problem. The average fitness is applied to replace the random operator in the exploration phase to solve the problem of conflicting exploration strategies due to randomness. In addition, the salp swarm algorithm (SSA) with a nonlinear inertia weight is embedded into the HHO, such that the superior explorative ability of SSA can fill the gap in the exploration of HHO. Finally, the optimal solution is greedily selected between SSA-based individuals and HHO-based individuals. The effectiveness of the proposed improved HHO optimizer is checked through a comparison with other swarm intelligence methods in typical benchmark problems. Moreover, the experimental results of form deviation-zone evaluation on primitive geometries show that the improved method can accurately solve various form deviations, providing an effective general solution for primitive geometries in the manufacturing and metrology fields.

Measurement science meets the reproducibility challenge

Measurement science is particularly well equipped not only to meet reproducibility challenges arising within the field of metrology, but also to suggest strategies and best practices for how such challenges can be met in other fields. This contribution illustrates three such challenges, in three different fields, and proposes ways to address them that can supplement the only way in which reproducibility challenges in science can be resolved definitively: by validated scientific advances that point toward the truth. The first example concerns a large interlaboratory, international comparison of the measurement of the mass fraction of silica in a granite reference material, using classical methods of wet analytical chemistry, carried out in the 1940s. The results delivered a shock to analysts worldwide about the state of the art at the time. The challenge was magnified by the fact that none of the measured values was qualified with an evaluation of measurement uncertainty. We offer an approach developed by Andrew Rukhin from NIST, for how to compute a meaningful consensus value in such case, and explain how the associated uncertainty can be characterized. The second example is about the currently hot topic of the Hubble tension, which refers to the mutual inconsistency of the measurement results, obtained by different methods, for the Hubble-Lemaître constant, which expresses the rate of expansion of the Universe. We suggest that such tension can be quantified in terms of the dark uncertainty that figures as a parameter in a laboratory random effects model, thus providing an objective metric whereby progress toward resolving such tension can be gauged. The third example discusses two sources of lack of reproducibility: on the one hand, the fact that different laboratories produced strikingly discrepant values for the mass fraction of arsenic in kudzu; on the other hand, that different models can be fitted to these data, each producing its own set of results. Here we use a Bayesian model selection criterion to choose one from among four models that are natural candidates to address this double reproducibility challenge. This third example also affords us the opportunity to deflate two widespread myths: that one needs at least four observations to obtain a Bayesian evaluation of standard uncertainty, and that sample standard deviations of small samples are systematically too small.

Pomiary kwantowe A.D. 2023

In the article a quantum estimation theory perspective on the concept of quantum measurement is presented, as well as the latest theoretical and experimental developments in the field of quantum metrology, with particular focus on the contribution of a research group from the University of Warsaw to the development of theoretical methods.

Recovery of military communication equipment with combat damage

During hostilities, military communications equipment can be damaged to varying degrees. This is also possible in the event of accidental damage during field exercises or in the event of a violation of conservation technology in the process of placing the equipment for long-term storage, as well as in case of non-compliance of the storage conditions with the established requirements. In the above cases, the equipment receives multiple (multiple) defects, the elimination of which is carried out in stages: first defect detection, and then diagnosis.
 The article proposes for the first time an approach to the rational distribution of efforts between stages during the work of a team of specialists, which allows to minimize the average time to restore the working capacity of damaged communication equipment. At the same time, modern achievements in the field of technical diagnostics and metrology were used, the possibility of complex application of types of group search for defects, which was not taken into account in known works, was investigated. Functional dependencies were obtained and the procedure for determining individual stages was formalized to minimize the total time for restoring the operational capacity of damaged communication equipment. Examples of the use of the obtained results and evaluation of the implementation in the practice of military repair in field conditions are given. The proposed block diagram of the algorithm for calculating the distribution of defect time and diagnosis when eliminating multiple defects of military communication equipment by various methods. It is noted that the use of the proposed process of formalization of the rational distribution of the efforts of the team of hardware and technical support specialists in the restoration of military communication equipment with a weak degree of damage allows in each specific case, depending on the real conditions of the repair, to receive recommendations on achieving the minimum time to restore performance.
 It was established that the use of the obtained results allows to reduce the average time of restoration of damaged military communication equipment due to the rational distribution of the efforts of specialists between the stages of defect detection and diagnosis from 8% to 25%.

Geometric Error Parameterization of a CMM via Calibrated Hole Plate Archived Utilizing DCC Formatting

This study implemented the measurement results and administrative information obtained from the hole plate into the Digital Calibration Certificate (DCC). The DCC comprises three parts: Norms and Standards, Hierarchical Structure, and XML as Exchange Format. DCCs play a significant role in the field of metrology and statistics by ensuring data interoperability, correctness, and traceability during the conversion and transmission process. The hole plate is a length standard used for two-dimensional geometric error measurements. We evaluated the accuracy of the high-precision coordinate measuring machine (CMM) in measuring a hole plate and compared the measurement error results obtained from the hole plate with those of the laser interferometer, autocollimator, and angle square. The results show that the maximum difference in linear error is −0.30 μm, the maximum difference in angle error is −0.78″, and the maximum difference in squareness error is 4.54″. The XML is designed for machine-readability and is modeled and edited using the XMLSpy 2022 software, which is based on information published by PTB. The administrative management and measurement results tasks are presented in PDF format, which is designed for human-readability and ease of use. Overall, we implemented the measurement results and information obtained from the hole plate into the DCC.

Parametric Symmetries in Architectures Involving Indefinite Causal Order and Path Superposition for Quantum Parameter Estimation of Pauli Channels

Parameter estimation for devices containing or supporting quantum systems is a field of quantum metrology using quantum probe states to reach their characterization. Pauli channels are ideal structures where qubits are transmitted or contained, commonly altering them with specific fingerprints. The ultimate limit imposed on such estimation is addressed using the quantum Fisher information, stating a lower bound for it. Although the most simple scheme suggests performing such an estimation directly using the individual channel, other approaches have shown improved outcomes by repeating identical copies of the channel for the characterization, or otherwise those connected inside of specific circuit arrangements. These connections commonly include path superposition or causal indefinite architectures. In addition, other improvements have been observed in concrete channels when complementary unitary controls are included. The current research analyses the complete set of Pauli channels under some of those architectures in a comparative approach to reach a better estimation, thus stating hierarchies. It is observed that the use of those unitary controls notably improves previous outcomes by several orders of magnitude.

Dynamic large strain measurement under high-temperature environment using a modified FBG sensor and plasma surface treatment.

Large strain measurement under high-temperature environment has been a hot but difficult research issue in the fields of measurement and metrology. However, conventional resistive strain gauges are susceptible to electromagnetic interference at high temperature, and typical fiber sensors will be invalid under high-temperature environment or fall off under large strain conditions. In this paper, aiming to achieve effective and precision measurement of large strain under high-temperature environment, a systematic scheme combining a well-designed encapsulation of a fiber Bragg grating (FBG) sensor and a special surface treatment method using plasma is presented. The encapsulation protects the sensor from damage while achieving partial thermal isolation and avoiding shear stress and creep, resulting in higher accuracy. And the plasma surface treatment provides a new bonding solution which can greatly improve the bonding strength and coupling efficiency without damaging the surface structure of the object under test. Suitable adhesive and temperature compensation method are also carefully analyzed. Consequently, large strain measurement up to 1500 µɛ under high-temperature (1000°C) environment is experimentally achieved in a cost-effective way.

Measurement Noise Susceptibility in Quantum Estimation.

Fisher information is a key notion in the whole field of quantum metrology. It allows for a direct quantification of the maximal achievable precision of the estimation of the parameters encoded in quantum states using the most general quantum measurement. It fails, however, to quantify the robustness of quantum estimation schemes against measurement imperfections, which are always present in any practical implementations. Here, we introduce a new concept of Fisher information measurement noise susceptibility that quantifies the potential loss of Fisher information due to small measurement disturbance. We derive an explicit formula for the quantity, and demonstrate its usefulness in the analysis of paradigmatic quantum estimation schemes, including interferometry and superresolution optical imaging.

Tunable phase-mismatched mid-infrared difference-frequency generation between 6 and 17 µm in CdTe.

In parametric conversion, phase-matching techniques such as birefringence and quasi phase-matching (PM) with the designed crystal angle or periodically poled polarities are employed to fulfill the requirement of momentum conservation. However, directly using phase-mismatched interactions in nonlinear media with large quadratic nonlinear coefficient remains unheeded. Here, for the first time to the best of our knowledge, we study the phase-mismatched difference-frequency generation (DFG) in an isotropic cadmium telluride (CdTe) crystal, with the comparison of other DFG processes based on birefringence-PM, quasi-PM, and random-quasi-PM. Long-wavelength mid-infrared (LWMIR) phase-mismatched DFG with an ultra-broadband spectral tuning range of 6-17 µm based on CdTe is demonstrated. Thanks to the giant quadratic nonlinear coefficient (∼109 pm/V) and good figure of merit in the parametric process, the output power up to 100 µW is obtained, which is comparable to or even better than the DFG output from a polycrystalline ZnSe with the same thickness facilitated by random-quasi-PM. A proof-of-concept demonstration in gas sensing of CH4 and SF6 is conducted based on the phase-mismatched DFG as a typical application. Our results demonstrate the feasibility of phase-mismatched parametric conversion in producing useful LWMIR power and ultra-broadband tunability in a simple and convenient way without the necessity of controlling the polarization, phase-matching angle, or pole periods, which could find applications in the fields of spectroscopy and metrology.

Collision-induced three-body polarizability of helium.

We present the first-principles determination of the three-body polarizability and the third dielectric virial coefficient of helium. Coupled-cluster and full configuration interaction methods were used to perform electronic structure calculations. The mean absolute relative uncertainty of the trace of the polarizability tensor, resulting from the incompleteness of the orbital basis set, was found to be 4.7%. Additional uncertainty due to the approximate treatment of triple and the neglect of higher excitations was estimated at 5.7%. An analytic function was developed to describe the short-range behavior of the polarizability and its asymptotics in all fragmentation channels. We calculated the third dielectric virial coefficient and its uncertainty using the classical and semiclassical Feynman-Hibbs approaches. The results of our calculations were compared with experimental data and with recent Path-Integral Monte Carlo (PIMC) calculations [Garberoglio et al., J. Chem. Phys. 155, 234103 (2021)] employing the so-called superposition approximation of the three-body polarizability. For temperatures above 200K, we observed a significant discrepancy between the classical results obtained using superposition approximation and the ab initio computed polarizability. For temperatures from 10K up to 200K, the differences between PIMC and semiclassical calculations are several times smaller than the uncertainties of our results. Except at low temperatures, our results agree very well with the available experimental data but have much smaller uncertainties. The data reported in this work eliminate the main accuracy bottleneck in the optical pressure standard [Gaiser et al., Ann. Phys. 534, 2200336 (2022)] and facilitate further progress in the field of quantum metrology.

Simulation Studies for an Electron Gun Based Magnetic Probe

This work investigates an innovative magnetic field probe suitable for characterizing a wide variety of complex magnetic systems. Currently, several magnetic field measurement technologies are available to perform magnetic characterization. A few examples of these technologies include Hall effect probes, magnetoresistive devices, and fluxgate magnetometers. In this article, we present simulations and perform validation of this novel sensing technology. This magnetometer is based on a low-energy electron beam traversing a micro cathode ray tube (mCRT). An electron gun shoots a stream of electrons at the imager mounted perpendicularly to the beam and located at the opposite end of the tube. Electrostatic plates enhance the magnetic probe’s range by bringing the beam spot back to the imager when it goes out of the boundary. The projected beam spot depends on the magnetic environment present at the beam path and can be translated to magnetic field measurements. This unique approach provides many advantages when characterizing complex magnetic systems. The unique characteristics resulting from this state-of-the-art magnetometer will add a new tool for the improvement of the field of magnetic metrology.