Ficus Asperifolia Research Articles

B-HEMATIN INHIBITION ACTIVITY OF THE METHANOL LEAF EXTRACT AND RESIDUAL AQUEOUS FRACTION OF FICUS ASPERIFOLIA

Chemotherapy is still regarded as the major intervention in fighting the malaria scourge despite the recent introduction of malaria vaccine. Screening of medicinal plants provides opportunities for the discovery of the potential drug molecules. Ficus asperifolia (Miq) family Moraceae has been traditionally employed in the treatment of many diseases including pain, fever and malaria. The aim of this study was to examine the anitmalarial activity of both the methanol leaf extract (MEFA) and residual aqueous fraction of Ficus asperifolia (RAF) through the determination of their heme polymerization inhibition ability. The powdered leaf was extracted using 70%

Antipyretic and Antinociceptive Effect of the Methanol Leaf Extract of Ficus asperifolia in Murine Models

Pyrexia occurs as a result of the resetting of the hypothalamic set-point. Non steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs used for the treatment of fever and related illnesses are associated with side effects including gastrointestinal irritation, bleeding, ulcers and perforation. In traditional medicine, many plants have been found to possess antipyretic activity. Ficus asperifolia (Miq), family Moraceae has been traditionally used to treat pain and fevers. The aim of the study was thus to evaluate the antipyretic and antinociceptive activity of the methanol leaf extract of Ficus asperifolia (FME) in murine models. Preliminary phytochemical screening and oral acute toxicity studies were conducted using standard protocols. Antipyretic activity was evaluated using the Brewer’s yeast induced pyrexia model. Antinociceptive effects were investigated using the acetic acid and thermal induced models. The mechanism of action of the plant was also evaluated against several antagonists. FME significantly (p<0.05) and dose dependently reduced yeast induced pyrexia. FME at doses 125, 250 and 500 mg/kg significantly (p<0.05) decreased acetic acid induced abdominal writhes and increased the mean reaction time of mice to thermal-induced pain stimulus. Pre-treatment of mice with naloxone (a non-selective opioid receptor antagonist), glibenclamide (a potassium channel blocker) and L-NNA (a nitric oxide synthase inhibitor) significantly reversed the analgesic action of the extract suggesting that the activity is likely mediated via the involvement of these pathways.

QUANTITATIVE DETERMINATION OF PHYTOCHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS OF FRACTIONS OBTAINED FROM Ficus asperifolia LEAVES MIQ (MORACEAE) AND THE CHARACTERIZATION OF COMPOUNDS IDENTIFIED IN THE RESIDUAL AQUEOUS FRACTION

Ficus asperifolia (Miq), family Moraceae is popularly known as sand-paper tree that is found in marshy areas around river banks. In Nigeria, it is called kawusa by Hausa tribe, ipin by Yoruba tribe and asesa or amerenwa by Igbo tribe. This research aims to quantify secondary metabolites present in the crude methanol extract and fractions and to characterize the identified compounds in the residual aqueous fraction of Ficus asperifolia leaves. The powdered fruit was extracted using 6L of 70% methanol. The crude extract was dissolved in water and fractionated using chloroform, ethylacetate, and n-buthanol. Phytochemical screening was conducted to determine the chemical composition of crude methanol leaf extract of Ficus asperifolia and its fractions. The phytochemical screening conducted revealed the presence of saponins, tannins, flavonoids, alkaloids, steroids and cardiac glycosides. Quantitative analysis of total alkaloids, flavoniods, saponins, and cardiac glycosides was also carried out. The crude extract fractionated produced 16.5% of chloroform, 6.8% of ethylacetate, 5.9% of n-butanol and 70.8% of residual aqueous fractions. The extract was further characterized using the available spectroscopic techniques such as FT-IR, UV, and GC-MS respectively.

Assessment of the anti-hyperglyceamic effect of Ficus asperifolia plant leaf aquous extract on alloxan-induced diabetic rats

Assessment of the anti-hyperglyceamic effect of Ficus asperifolia plant leaf aquous extract on alloxan-induced diabetic rats

Fig (Ficus exasperata and Ficus asperifolia)-Supplemented diet improves sexual function, endothelial nitric oxide synthase and suppresses tumour necrosis factor-alpha genes in hypertensive rats.

We measured the effect of varieties of Fig leaves, Ficus exasperata Vahl. (FE) and Ficus asperifolia Miq (FA), commonly found in Sub-sahara Africa for managing hypertension on sexual performance in hypertensive rats, which is unknown. Hypertensive rats experienced erectogenic damage after exposure to 40mgkg-1 bw-1 , N(G)-nitro-l-arginine-methyl-ester (L-NAME). Experimental rats were grouped into eight groups (n=6) namely: control rats, hypertensive rats, hypertensive treatment groups with atenolol (10mgkg-1 day-1 ) and sildenafil (5.0mg/kg), rats treated with FE- and FA-formulated biscuits at proportions of 2.5g and 5.0g respectively. Furthermore, we measured the level of sexual performance (Intromission number, latency, Mounting number, and latency), hormonal levels, phosphodiesterase-5 enzyme (PDE-5) activity and genes expressed using real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR) in hypertensive rats. The result deduced revealed that treated hypertensive rats showed significantly reduced follicle-stimulating hormone, luteinising hormone levels, PDE-5 enzyme activity, tumour necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) expression while having a marked increase in testosterone level, sexual performance and endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) expression. Therefore, this study revealed the comparative dietary enhancing effect of FE- and FA-formulated biscuit on sexual behaviour activity, hormonal levels and the level of eNOS and TNF-α genes expressed in hypertensive rats.

Ficus asperifolia Miq‐enriched biscuit diet protects against L‐NAME induced hyperlipidemia and hypertension in rats

AbstractDietary sources of functional foods and nutraceutical have shown strong potentials in the management of hypertension and its complications. Sandpaper leaves, Ficus asperifolia Miq (FA), particularly found in Africa has a rich folkloric history in the management of diabetes and hypertension. This study produced biscuits supplemented with blends of FA at 2.5% and 5% fed to Nw (G)‐nitro‐l‐arginine‐methyl‐ester (L‐NAME, 40 mg/kg/day) induced‐hypertensive rats for 14 days followed by the assessment of blood pressure, lipid profile, and atherogenic index in hypertensive rats. The phenolic constituents of FA blends were analyzed using high‐performance liquid chromatography diode‐anode (HPLC‐DAD). Thereafter, the mean arterial blood pressure (MABP) and systolic blood pressure (SBP) was measured using the tail‐cuff method after which the heart and lungs of rats were collected, weighed, and the antioxidant status and lipid cholesterol profile were assessed. We realized that recorded phenolic constituents in extracts of FA was at a high level and FA enriched biscuit‐diet caused a significant decrease in SBP and MABP in L‐NAME‐induced hypertensive rats, body weight, atherogenic index and cholesterol profile in treated rats. However, FA enriched biscuit resulted in increased activities of catalase (CAT), superoxide dismutase (SOD), and glutathione‐S‐transferase (GST) antioxidant enzymes in the heart and lungs of hypertensive rats. This study revealed that FA enriched biscuit‐diet does not only have antihypertensive and antioxidant potential in L‐NAME‐induced hypertensive rats but also plays a protective role in the management of hyperlipidemia.

Bacteriological and Phytochemical Assessment of Ficus asperifolia Linn. Infusion.

Ficus asperifolia Linn. known as “Eepin” in Yoruba language, or sand paper tree, is a monoecious fig tree whose leaves, bark, seeds, and roots have been used locally in treating many infectious and noninfectious diseases. The study is aimed at investigating the bacteriological and phytochemical potential of Ficus asperifolia Linn. The roots of the plant were harvested and washed, and phytochemical analysis was carried out using standard analytical techniques. Infusion was aseptically prepared, and incubation for 24 hours and microbiological analysis were carried out using the pour plate method on Plate Count Agar (PCA) and Nutrient Agar (NA). Microorganisms were subcultured and identified using morphological and biochemical tests according to “Bergey's Manual of Determinative Bacteriology.” Phytochemical analysis of the fresh and dry roots revealed the presence of alkaloids, cardenolides, and saponins, while anthraquinones and tannins were absent. Total heterotrophic bacteria count on PCA was 5.6 × 105 CFU/ml, while on NA, it was 2.3 × 105 CFU/ml, and four classes of bacteria were isolated including Klebsiella sp., Escherichia coli, Proteus sp., and Bacillus sp. Although the presence of medicinal phytochemicals in F. asperifolia Linn. indicates strong potentials for its use in infusions, the presence of potential pathogens found in the infusions makes it unsafe for consumption.

Anti-diabetic effects of Ficus Asperifolia in Streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats.

The current study aimed to determine the antidiabetic effects of leaf extract of Ficus asperifolia in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. A total of ninety-five (95) adult rats were used for the experiment. The whole study protocol was divided into three sets of individual experiments. The animals were divided randomly into seven groups of five rats each. The rats were given a diet supplemented with 50g high fat to 50g vital feeds for two weeks. The study lasted 28days with daily administration and weekly blood glucose and body weight check. At the end of the experiment protocol, the rats were fasted overnight and were anesthetized. Blood was collected via cardiac puncture from each animal for biochemical analysis. Metglim 3.38mg/kg bodyweight was used aspositive control. Diabetes was induced using streptozotocin(35 mg/kg in 0.1M phosphate-buffered saline) intraperitoneally for 5 days. Phytochemicals were analyzed in both extract and fractions. Phytochemical screening revealed the presence of alkaloids, saponins, flavonoids, glycosides, tannins, carotenoids, terpenes, and steroids in both extract and fractions. Proteins, carbohydrates, and fats were detected by systematic molecular analysis. Fraction 1 of plant extracts prevented glucose-induced hyperglycaemia 30min' post glucose load in all rats. Streptozotocin treatment caused a significant increase (p˂0.05) in blood sugar, total cholesterol, triacylglycerol, low-density lipoproteins and a significant (p˂0.05) decrease in food intake, body weight and high-density lipoproteins in diabetic rats. Treatment with the extract significantly improved the derangements caused by streptozotocin. These results suggest thatthe leafextracts of Ficus asperifolia could serve as a potential treatment for diabetes therapy.

Preliminary Studies on the Anti-Inflammatory and Analgesic Effects of Methanol Leaf Extract of Ficus asperifolia Miq

a peer-reviewed, open access online international journal which publishes original research papers. The journal welcomes submission from scholars and experts for possible publication from all over the world. The scope of the journal includes: Pharmaceutical research, chemistry and biochemistry of naturally occurring compounds, biological evaluation of crude extracts, ethnomedicine, traditional and complementary medicine, ethnopharmacology, biomedical research, Biotechnology, Evaluation of natural substances of land and sea and of plants, microbes and animals, pharmacognosy, bioavailability, clinical, pharmacological, toxicological studies and pharmacokinetics of phytochemicals, Isolation and characterization of compounds, structure elucidation, synthesis and experimental biosynthesis of natural Product as well as developments of methods in these areas are welcomed in the journal.

Phytochemical Analysis, In vitro Antioxidant Activity and Inhibition of Key Diabetic Enzymes by Selected Nigerian Medicinal Plants with Antidiabetic Potential

Abstract: Background: Diabetes is one of the most common metabolic disorders worldwide and the disease is generally believed to be incurable. However, the historical success of natural products as therapeutic agents has led to the search for more herbs with antidiabetic potential. Aim: To investigate the antioxidative and antidiabetic activities of some common medicinal plants traditionally used to treat diabetes in Nigeria. Materials and Methods: Twenty one plant samples comprising leaves, seeds and stem bark were separately extracted using three solvents of increasing polarity namely ethanol, methanol and distilled water. The extracts were subsequently screened for their phenolic profile, ferric reducing power as well as inhibition of α-amylase and haemoglobin glycosylation activities as markers of in vitro antidiabetic activity. Results: Solvents extracts of 7 out of the 21 plants examined namely Anacardium occidentale (leaf), Carica papaya (leaf), Ficus asperifolia (leaf), Hibiscus sabdariffa (stem bark), Khaya senegalensis (stem bark), Ocimum gratissimum (leaf) and Parkia biglobosa (stem bark) had significant concentrations of total polyphenol and flavonoid compared to the other plants. Similarly, for all the in vitro models used in this study, the same set of plants demonstrated significantly (p < 0.05) higher effects which were comparable to ascorbic acid, acarbose and gallic acid. Conclusion: Findings from this study indicate strong correlation between polyphenolic concentration and antidiabetic activity. The study also confirmed the potential of some Nigerian herbs in antidiabetic drug discovery; and identified a number of promising plants for further in vivo investigation as plant-based antidiabetic agents. Key words: Diabetes, Antioxidant, α-amylase, Haemoglobin glycosylation, Natural products.

Pathogenicity and in vitro extracts inhibition of fungi causing severe leaf blight in Thaumatoccocus danielli (Benn.) Benth

Isolation and identification of fungi associated with severe leaf blight of Thaumatococcus danielli was conducted. The fungi were subjected to pathogenicity test in the screenhouse experiment. Laboratory assessment of antifungicidal activities of; Ficus asperifolia, Psidium guajava, Mormodica charantia and Anarcadium occidentales prepared at 25, 50 and 75 mg/mL concentrations against the three most virulent pathogens was carried out on PDA, V8 Agar, CZA, and MEA culture media. Data gathered were subjected to ANOVA. Aspergillus niger, A. flavus, Pythium sp., Penicillium sp., Fusarium oxysporum, Macrophomina phaseolina, Trichoderma viride, T. koniigi and T. harzianum were the fungi found associated with the diseased parts and the rhizospheric soil. M. phaseolina, A. flavus and A. niger were the most virulent obtained in the pathogenicity test. Growths of these pathogens were mostly inhibited by M. charantia as its efficacy increased with increase in the concentration levels. Mycelia growths were mostly supported by MEA medium.

Investigation of Antidiarrheal Activity of the Aqueous Leave Extract of Ficus asperifolia in Rats

Investigation of Antidiarrheal Activity of the Aqueous Leave Extract of Ficus asperifolia in Rats

Hepatoprotective Potentials of Aqueous extracts of Ficus asperifolia MIQ leaves on CCl4 induced liver damage in Wistar rats

Hepatoprotective Potentials of Aqueous extracts of Ficus asperifolia MIQ leaves on CCl4 induced liver damage in Wistar rats

Androgenic effects of aqueous and methanolic extracts of Ficus asperifolia in male Wistar rats

BackgroundAndrogen deficiency is a clinical syndrome resulting from the inability of the testes to produce physiological levels of testosterone due to a disturbance occurring at one or more levels of the hypothalamic-pituitary-testicular axis. The present study was undertaken to evaluate the androgenic properties of aqueous and methanolic extracts of Ficus asperifolia on normal and castrated immature rats.MethodsNormal rats were treated either per os with aqueous or methanolic extract of Ficus asperifolia (100 mg/kg or 500 mg/kg b.w.), distilled water (10 ml/kg b.w.), 5% Tween 80 (10 ml/kg b.w.) or subcutaneously with testosterone propionate (0.5 mg/kg b.w.). Castrated rats were treated with plant extracts (100 mg/kg b.w. or 500 mg/kg b.w.) alone or with the co-administration of plant extracts and testosterone propionate (s.c., 0.5 mg/kg b.w.) or bicalutamide (2 mg/kg b.w. per os). Animals were treated once a day during four weeks. Body weight growth and relative sexual organ weights were recorded at the end of each treatment. Some biomedical parameters were measured in the plasma (proteins, cholesterol), testes (cholesterol) and epididymis (proteins).ResultsIn normal rats, Ficus asperifolia significantly (p < 0.05) increased the relative weights of the testes and all sexual-dependent organs whereas total testicular cholesterol concentration was significantly (p < 0.05) decreased. In castrated groups, treatment with Ficus asperifolia was followed by an increase in the sexual organ weights, epididymal protein and prostatic acid phosphatase concentrations. The co-administration of testosterone and plant extracts significantly (p < 0.05) increased the weight of accessory sexual organs and epididymal protein contents. In the presence of bicalutamide (an anti-androgen), the sexual stimulating activity of Ficus asperifolia was diminished with remarkable effects on vas deferens weight (p < 0.05), plasma (p < 0.01) and epididymal (p < 0.05) protein contents.ConclusionFicus asperifolia possesses androgen-like activity through possible stimulation of cytoplasmic and/or nuclear receptors by the bioactive compounds found in its extracts.

Style length variation in male and female figs: development, inheritance, and control of pollinator oviposition

AbstractFig trees (Ficus spp., Moraceae) depend on female fig wasps to transport their pollen and as a reward provide nutrition for pollinator fig wasp larvae. Most pollinators are host specific, but natural plant hybrids occur if atypical hosts are pollinated. Female fig wasps lay their eggs into ovaries of female flowers in receptive figs by inserting their ovipositors through the styles, and relative style and ovipositor lengths are believed to largely determine their ability to oviposit. In dioecious fig trees, flowers in receptive male figs have short styles and support larval development, whereas flowers in receptive female figs have long styles and only develop into seeds. Using the dioecious fig tree species Ficus montana Burm. f. and Ficus asperifolia Miq., we recorded the comparative ontogeny of style lengths to determine whether style growth in the two sexes is coordinated with the attraction of pollinators, and how maximum style lengths relate to the ovipositor lengths of their pollinators. F1 hybrids between these species produce viable seeds, but no pollinator offspring. We examined style lengths in F1s and backcrosses, relative to those of their parents, and whether coordination of style growth with pollinator attraction is disrupted. The ovipositor of Kradibia tentacularis (Grandi) (Hymenoptera: Agaonidae), the pollinator of F. montana, could reach some of the ovaries in female figs, but fails to lay eggs there. Styles in male F1 figs were intermediate in length between those of the two parents, but in female F1 figs styles grew longer than in either parent. Maximum style lengths in F1s were partially decoupled from receptivity, especially in female figs. Our results illustrate how timing of stigmal growth is coordinated with pollinator attraction, and that this coordination can be disrupted in hybrid individuals.

Chemical Composition and Antimicrobial Activity of Essential Oils of Ficus asperifolia Miq. and Ficus capensis Thunb from Nigeria

The chemical constituents of essential oils obtained from Ficus asperifolia and Ficus capensis by hydrodistillation were determined by using gas chromatography (GC) and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) techniques. Antimicrobial activity was evaluated by means of disc diffusion method against seven clinically important bacterial and two fungi strains. The main constituents of F. asperifolia were myristicin (16.4%), limonene (15.7%), phytol (11.1%), methyl salicylate (10.8%) and cyclododecane (9.9%). However, tricosane (52.2%), hexacosane (24.2%) and cyclcotetradecane (15.4%) were the principal constituents of F. capensis. The results also showed that both oils exhibited wide range of antimicrobial activity against the tested organisms. The zones of inhibition (IZ) ranged between 8.7 ± 3.1 and 28.3 ± 0.6 mm in F. capensis; and 9.3 ± 0.2 and 26.3 ± 5.5 mm in F. asperifolia, while, the minimum inhibitory concentrations (MIC) values varied between 0.08 and 10.0 mg/mL (F. capensis) and 0.16 and 10 mg/mL (F. asperifolia).

English

The inhibitory potentials of ethanolic extracts and four fractions of the stem bark of Ficus asperifolia – Miq. for the corrosion of mild steel were assessed using weight loss method, Fourier atomic absorption spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The effects of varying immersion period, concentration of the inhibitors and temperatures for mild steel corrosion in 5 M HCl acid solution were carried out. A detailed kinetic reaction, thermodynamic (Ea, ∆H, ∆S) and adsorption isotherm studies were obtained. The crude extract of F. asperifolia (EFA) has the highest inhibition efficiency of 55%. The inhibitory efficiency of the four fractions of F. asperifolia (EFA) compared with the crude extract was in the order ethyl acetate > n-hexane > butanol > EFA > Aqueous. The inhibition efficiency was found to increase with increase in the extracts concentration but decreased with temperature. Corrosion rate increases with time but decreases with extracts concentration. The kinetic studies of the data followed a first order reaction. Thermodynamic studies revealed that corrosion inhibition may be due to spontaneous mixed adsorption of the plant constituents on the metal surface. Experimental data were fitted to Langmuir, Freundlich and Temkin adsorption isotherms. The plant investigated showed a good potential for green corrosion inhibitors. Investigation of phytochemical constituents showed that the extracts contain alkaloids, flavonoids, saponins, tannins anthraquinones and reducing sugars. Key words: Inhibitory efficiency, corrosion rate, adsorption isotherm.

Protective Influence of Ficus asperifolia Miq Leaf Extract on Carbon tetrachloride (CCL4)-Induced Testicular Toxicity in rat's Testes

The aim of this study was to investigate the ability of the polyphenolic rich Ficus asperifolia (Miq.) leaf extract in protecting rat testes against carbon tetrachloride-induced testicular damage in male Wistar rats. Thirty rats (weighing 140 - 180 g) were divided into five groups. In each treatment groups, aqueous extract of F. asperifolia (100, 200 and 400 mg/kg bw) administered by oral gavage for 21 days before exposure to carbon tetrachloride (CCl4) 3 mL kg 1i.p. were used to test protective influence of the plant extract. Protective influence were observed on antioxidant marker enzymes such as reduced glutathione (GSH) levels, catalase (CAT), glutathione peroxidase (GPx), superoxide dismutase (SOD), and malonaldehyde (MDA) and histological examination.. Animal exposure to the CCl4 resulted in significant elevation in the MDA with concomitant depletion (p < 0.05) in the level of GPx, CAT and SOD activities compared with control. Daily oral administration of F. asperifolia showed beneficial and ameliorative effects in all biochemical parameter evaluated. Histopathological alteration in testes was observed in CCl4 untreated rats and was ameliorated inCCl4 rats treated with F. asperifolia. Result shows that the aqueous leaf extract of F. asperifolia has ameliorative effect against carbon tetrachloride-induced testicular toxicity.

A comparison of pollinator fig wasp development in figs of Ficus montana and its hybrids with Ficus asperifolia

AbstractFigs (Moraceae) and pollinator fig wasps (Hymenoptera: Agaonidae) have a highly specific mutualistic relationship but fig wasps occasionally enter atypical hosts, and this can lead to hybrid fig trees and the potential for gene flow between species. Many fig trees are dioecious, with fig wasp offspring developing in galled ovules inside figs on male trees, whereas seeds develop only in figs on female trees. We generated experimental hybrids between the Asian Ficus montana Blume and a closely related African species Ficus asperifolia Miquel. Male F1s were sterile if entered by Kradibia tentacularis (Grandi) (Agaonidae), the pollinator of F. montana, because its offspring always failed to develop, without ovule enlargement. As with the F1s, figs on most male backcross plants [F. montana × (F. montana × F. asperifolia)] also aborted shortly after pollinator entry, resulting in a higher turnover of figs than with F. montana, although the times taken for the figs to reach receptivity were similar. Pollinator larvae nonetheless consistently managed to develop inside the figs of one backcross plant and also occasionally in a few figs from another backcross individual. In these figs, galled ovules developed as normal, whereas in figs that aborted the galled ovules failed to enlarge. The sex ratio of K. tentacularis progeny in the backcross figs was female biased and did not differ from that in F. montana figs. Sycoscapter spec. (Hymenoptera: Pteromalidae), a parasitoid of K. tentacularis, was able to lay eggs and developed normally inside male backcross figs where its host was present.

Ability to gall: the ultimate basis of host specificity in fig wasps?

1. Fig trees (Ficus spp.) and their host‐specific pollinator fig wasps (Agaonidae) are partners in an obligate mutualism. Receptive phase figs release specific volatiles to attract their pollinators, and this is generally effective in preventing pollinator species from entering figs of the wrong hosts.2. If entry is attempted into atypical host figs, then ostiole size and shape and style length may also prevent reproduction. In spite of these barriers, there is increasing evidence that fig wasps enter atypical hosts, and that this can result in hybrid seed and fig wasp offspring.3. This study examines the basis of pollinator specificity in two dioecious fig species from different geographical areas. Kradibia tentacularis pollinates Ficus montana in Asia. Ficus asperifolia from East Africa is closely related but is pollinated by a different species of Kradibia.4. In glasshouses, K. tentacularis was attracted to its normal host, F1s and backcrosses, but only rarely entered figs of F. asperifolia. Foundresses were able to lay eggs in hybrids, backcrosses, and F. asperifolia, although flower occupancy was lowest in F. asperifolia figs and intermediate in hybrids.5. The fig wasp failed to reproduce in female F. montana, male F. asperifolia, and male F1s, and most but not all backcrosses to F. montana. This was a result of the failure to initiate gall production.6. Host specificity in this fig wasp is strongly influenced by host volatiles, but the ability to gall may be the ultimate determinant of whether it can reproduce.