Fenced Area Research Articles

АРХЕОЛОГИЧЕСКОЕ ОБСЛЕДОВАНИЕ ЛЕВОБЕРЕЖЬЯ УСТЬЯ Р. УРТАМКА (КОЖЕВНИКОВСКИЙ РАЙОН ТОМСКОЙ ОБЛАСТИ)

The article is devoted to a review of the archaeological survey results of the left bank of the Urtamka River mouth (the Kozhevnikovsky District of the Tomsk Oblast). The purpose of the research was to localize the station of the Urtam ostrog, marked on the map of 1701 by S.U. Remezov, located on the left bank of the Urtamka River. The survey of this territory made it possible to detect an elevated area (Urtamskoe-II), fenced on three sides by a sub-square ditch 2 m wide and 0.4 m deep. The total dimension of the fence was 200 m, which formally correlates with the perimeter of the Urtam ostrog, indicated in a written source of the late 17th century (1687). However, the archaeological study of the ditch section and the inner fenced area of the newly identified fortified settlement Urtamskoe-II did not reveal the cross-section of the ditch and the foundations of the log wall that are characteristic for the Early New Time. Such results complicate their connection with the Urtam ostrog. In addition, the osteological materials and fragments of the rims of ceramic vessels from the Irmen culture (Late Bronze Age) were found in the cultural layer of the discovered settlement. It should be noted that for the territories occupied by several archaeologically investigated ostrogs (Tomsky, Umrevinsky, Sayansky, etc.), the facts of the discovery of the earlier archaeological materials are quite typical. However, the ditch fence of the sub-square outlines of the residential area of the fortified settlement Urtamskoe-II significantly distinguishes it from the nearest Irmen settlement of the Baturino-1. Fencing with a “П” shaped moat are more typical for the settlements of the late Middle Ages on the territory of neighboring Baraba (Tyumenka, Chinyaikha). In general, the archaeological research carried out reflected the general tendency which is the complexity of localizing the ostrog as an archaeological site. Keywords: archaeological exploration, Upper Ob Region, ancient settlements, settlements, ostrog

ИСПОЛЬЗОВАНИЕ БОБОВЫХ ДЛЯ ЭКОЛОГИЧЕСКОЙ РЕКУЛЬТИВАЦИИ СТЕПНЫХ ДЕГРАДИРОВАННЫХ ПАСТБИЩ КУЛУНДЫ

Intensive development of the steppe communities of Kulunda, located in the southern part of the West Siberian lowland in the XX century led to a significant anthropogenic transformation of all steppe ecosystems. Representatives of the legume family, which is the most important component of steppe grasses, have almost disappeared from the grasslands. The research was conducted on the territory of the Mikhailovsky district of the Altai territory, on the lands of LLC KKH «Partner» in the environs of Poluyamki village scince 2013-till present days climatic conditions of dry steppe zone of Western Kulunda. The aim of the work was to evaluate representatives of the legume family for ecological reclamation of Kulunda steppe pastures. The experiment was performed on 2 degraded fenced steppe areas (10 x 10 m) corresponding to the third stage of pasture digression. Winter sowing of legumes was carried out: cicer milk vetch (Astragalus cicer L.), sainfoin milk vetch (A. onobrychis L.), furrowed milk vetch (A. sulcatus L.), bird’s foot trefoil (Lotus corniculatus L.), sickle alfalfa (Medicago falcata L.), hop alfalfa (M. lupulina L.) and late spring sowing: cicer milk vetch and sainfoin, bird’s foot trefoil by tapping into the sod. Monthly growth dynamics of sown plants (number of shoots per m2, height, phenology) was recorded, and the feed value of aboveground biomass was established. It was found that the drought-resistant species of alfalfa sickle has a significant biomass, is short-lived in the grass stand and requires re-sowing every 4 years. Hop alfalfa is recommended for improving degraded pastures, but due to its short ontogeny, it needs to be re-sown every three years. Among milk vetches, sainfoil milk vetch is the most promising – a long-rooted, rod-rooted polycarpic that increases its area due to numerous underground rhizomes. The greatest nutritional and energy value was possessed by the phytomass of bird’s foot trefoil and sickle alfalfa.

Hortus conclusus posmodernos: el refugio de los tecnócratas. Representaciones del estatus social en el urbanismo y la arquitectura tal y como han quedado reflejadas en el cine del capitalismo avanzado (hacia 1980-)

En el presente estudio cultural se expondrá cómo el cine de las últimas cuatro décadas ha mostrado el espacio ciudadano dedicado a las clases altas, espacios muy marcados y con las zonas de intercambio con las otras clases estrictamente delimitadas. Durante los años del capitalismo avanzado las ciudades se han pensado según un esquema bipolar muy acentuado, con pequeñas zonas valladas dedicadas a la élite afortunada, y grandes extensiones de chabolas alrededor de ellas. El cine del periodo lo ha plasmado, al ser un arte difusor de ideas entre grandes audiencias. Para el análisis se han tenido en cuenta películas de géneros, tipos y procedencias muy variados: fantástico, drama, de culto, blockbusters, Hollywood, cine europeo, suramericano… La propuesta parte del visionado de varias películas, más una base teórica de referencias bibliográficas que sustentan el discurso.

Reptiles on the brink: identifying the Australian terrestrial snake and lizard species most at risk of extinction

Australia hosts approximately 10% of the world’s reptile species, the largest number of any country. Despite this and evidence of widespread decline, the first comprehensive assessment of the conservation status of Australian terrestrial squamates (snakes and lizards) was undertaken only recently. Here we apply structured expert elicitation to the 60 species assessed to be in the highest IUCN threat categories to estimate their probability of extinction by 2040. We also assessed the probability of successful reintroduction for two Extinct in the Wild (EW) Christmas Island species with trial reintroductions underway. Collation and analysis of expert opinion indicated that six species are at high risk (>50%) of becoming extinct within the next 20 years, and up to 11 species could be lost within this timeframe unless management improves. The consensus among experts was that neither of the EW species were likely to persist outside of small fenced areas without a significant increase in resources for intense threat management. The 20 most imperilled species are all restricted in range, with three occurring only on islands. The others are endemic to a single state, with 55% occurring in Queensland. Invasive species (notably weeds and introduced predators) were the most prevalent threats, followed by agriculture, natural system modifications (primarily fire) and climate change. Increased resourcing and management intervention are urgently needed to avert the impending extinction of Australia’s imperilled terrestrial reptiles.

Private-land control and deforestation dynamics in the context of implementing the Native Forest Law in the Northern Argentinian Dry Chaco

SummarySubtropical dry forests are among the largest and most threatened terrestrial biomes worldwide. In Argentina, the Native Forest Law (NFL) was passed in 2007 to regulate deforestation by mandating the provincial zonation of forested areas, while the erection of fences has been an increasingly common mechanism of private-land control reinforcement in the region; this is mainly fuelled by imminent land-use changes, recent land transactions or subsidies from the NFL. We explored the dynamics between the erection of fences and deforestation in the Northern Argentinian Dry Chaco (NADC) during the implementation of the NFL. We found that a third of land deforested during 2000–2017 had been previously fenced, with the highest percentage (44%) occurring during the sanction of the NFL (2007) and the completion of the forest-zonation maps (2011). Only 34% of deforestation within fenced areas occurred in zones where deforestation was legally permitted. In total, 327 386 ha of forests had been fenced within NADC by 2017, representing areas of potential access restriction for local people, who historically used forest resources for survival. Additionally, 57% of the fenced area occurred in zones where deforestation was restricted. A novel remote-sensing application can serve as an early-warning tool for deforestation.

Expansion of Vertebrate Pest Exclusion Fencing and Its Potential Benefits for Threatened Fauna Recovery in Australia.

Simple SummaryGlobally, there is a need to preserve threatened species before they disappear. The management of these species is often aided, particularly in Australia, by the addition of exclusion fences that prevent the movement of invasive or pest predators and competitors into the conservation area. Widespread use of conservation fences is limited by the availability of suitable conservation land and the relatively high costs of such fencing. Here, we discuss the potential conservation benefit of pest exclusion fences erected on agricultural land. We assess the spatial overlap of existing agricultural exclusion fences (known as “cluster fences”) with the potential habitat of listed threatened species and consider whether or not identified threats to these species are potentially alleviated within cluster fences. We find that there are several species that face threats which may be alleviated with cluster fences and propose that active recovery of threatened species on fenced agricultural land be seriously considered.The global effort to conserve threatened species relies heavily on our ability to separate these species from the processes that threaten them, and a common tool used for this purpose is exclusion fencing. In Australia, pest animal exclusion fencing has been repeatedly used on conservation land on a small scale to successfully exclude introduced predators and competitors from threatened native fauna populations. However, in recent years, “cluster fencing” on agricultural land has re-emerged on a large scale and is used by livestock producers seeking to reduce predation losses by dingoes (Canis familiaris) and manage total grazing pressure from native and introduced herbivores, including red kangaroos (Osphranter rufus). Given that the primary threats to at-risk native fauna are also predation and overgrazing, there may be potential for cluster fencing on livestock land to achieve additional fauna conservation benefits. Understanding the amount, location and potential conservation value of cluster fenced livestock land is critical for determining how these areas might contribute to broader threatened fauna recovery goals. Drawing from publicly available databases maintained by the Australian Government, we assessed the spatial overlap of threatened species’ distributions with 105 cluster fences erected in Queensland since 2013, which cover 65,901 km2 of land. These cluster fenced areas represent 18 biogeographic subregions and may contain 28 extant threatened mammals, birds and reptiles including 18 vulnerable species, 7 endangered species and 3 critically endangered species. An average of nine threatened species or their habitats were identified per cluster, and over three quarters (78.6%) of these species face at least one threat that is being mitigated within clusters. The true status of threatened and pest species within clusters is largely unknown or unrecorded in most cases, but some examples of pest eradication and threatened species recovery are already emerging. Given the vast size of the cluster fenced estate, the many different biomes and species that it represents and the nature of the threats being removed within these fenced areas, we contend that agricultural cluster fencing may offer an unprecedented opportunity to advance threatened fauna conservation goals for some species at scales previously thought impossible and should be a research priority for threatened species managers.

Evaluation of groundwater contamination sources by plant protection products in hilly vineyards of Northern Italy

In Europe, 25% of groundwater has poor chemical status. One of the main stressors is agriculture, with nitrates and plant protection products (PPPs) causing failure in 18% and 6.5%, respectively, of groundwater bodies (by area). EU legislation for the placement of the PPPs on the market is one of the most stringent in the world. However, recent monitoring studies in hilly vineyards of Tidone Valley, north-west of Italy, show presence of PPPs used for grapevine cultivation in 15 out of 26 groundwater wells monitored, at values above the Environment Quality Standard (EQS) for groundwater (0.1 μg/L). However, no information about the contamination sources are available. Therefore, the objective of the present work is to evaluate the groundwater contamination sources by PPPs, in a small catchment with intensive viticulture, by collecting and integrating monitoring data, sub-surface water movement data and territorial characteristics. The results show that in wells used for PPP's mixture preparation and sprayer washing located at the top of hilly vineyards, with low slope and no water movement in the surrounding soil, the contamination is most likely from point sources. On the contrary, for wells located in a fenced area at the bottom of the hill, far away from vineyards and being used for drinking water production, the contamination is most likely from diffuse sources. Our results were used to raise awareness on groundwater contamination from PPPs among farmers in the study area; moreover a waterproof platform for sprayers washing, equipped with wastewater recovery and disposal system, able to avoid point-source contamination, was implemented in a local demonstration farm. Several demonstration activities were then organised with the farmers of the entire Valley in order to show its functionality and promote its diffuse use.

Fencing decreases microbial diversity but increases abundance in grassland soils on the Tibetan Plateau

AbstractFencing usually increases soil organic carbon and nutrients and eventually enhances soil microbial diversity; however with different or even conflicting results, the mechanisms underlying the diversity reduction remain unclear. Aiming to reveal the mechanism of diversity reduction, we explored the soil microbial diversity and community structure in fenced areas (5‐and 10‐years enclosure) and grazing during a growing season in arid and semiarid steppe, using Illumina sequencing of 16S and 18S rRNA genes. The results revealed that fencing and season both substantially increased soil total organic carbon (TOC), while the enhancing TOC substantially reduced soil pH. Fencing significantly increased soil bacterial and eukaryotic abundance due to the enhancing TOC, which was indicated by positive correlation (p < .05). Contrastingly, fencing significantly decreased soil bacterial and eukaryotic diversity. Our results further revealed that fencing‐ and season‐driven change in soil water content and soil pH played key roles in reducing the bacterial and eukaryotic diversity, respectively. Distance‐based linear model demonstrated that fencing dominantly drove the soil bacterial and eukaryotic community variations by explaining 15.64 and 24.88%, respectively, and redundancy analysis showed that the fencing effect was dependent on growing months. Bacteria were dominated by Cyanobacteria and Proteobacteria, and eukaryotes were dominated by Streptophyta, Ascomycota and Basidiomycota. Cyanobacteria relative abundance remained stable from May to September in fencing but substantially increased in grazing. Our findings offer a new insight into the mechanism of the soil microbial diversity reduction, and reveal the season‐dependency of fencing effect in arid and semiarid grasslands.

When do predator exclusion fences work best? A spatially explicit modelling approach

Abstract Context Exclusion fences are increasingly used to prevent interactions between predators (introduced and native) and assets such as endangered species or livestock. However, challenges remain in identifying when exclusion fences are an optimal investment and the intended outcome is likely to be achieved. The level of association with complementary methods of control that is needed is also unclear. AimsWe aimed to quantify the interactions among factors that affect fencing efficiency, including the size of the fenced area, the fence permeability, the initial density of the predator population, and its survival of complementary control methods. MethodsUsing a spatially explicit, individual-based model, we simulated wild dog (dingo) populations as a proxy for describing predator dynamics inside a fenced area under different management practices and fence designs. We then fit a generalised linear model to the model outcomes to assess the effects of the four factors mentioned above. Key resultsLethal control had a strong effect on wild dog density when the survival of control was lower than 0.5. Fences generally had an effect on wild dog density only when their permeability was lower than ~1% and their effect was most noticeable when the initial density was very low (<2 dogs per 100km2), or when survival of control was very low (<0.5). Conversely, when the initial density was very high (~12 dogs per 100km2), a fence with a low permeability (<1.5%) caused the paradoxical effect that wild dog density could be higher than that obtained with a more permeable fence. Wild dog eradication was possible only when survival of control was 0.25 or lower, except when either initial density or fence permeability were extremely low (<2 dogs per 100km2 and <0.1% respectively). ConclusionsOur results demonstrated that large exclusion fences can be an effective aid in managing predator populations. We recommend that this tool should be used as a preventive measure before predators establish a population inside the area targeted for exclusion, in tandem with lethal control, or when an initial marked reduction of predator density can be achieved. We also demonstrated that eradication can be achieved only when a narrow combination of parameters is met. Implications Land managers should carefully evaluate when and at what scale control tools should be deployed to control wild dog populations. Landscape application of exclusion fences faces the challenge of high maintenance to ensure low permeability, coupled with very high sustained suppression of wild dog density, which are unlikely to be feasible options in the long term. Conversely, the same control techniques could provide efficient asset protection at a smaller scale where fence maintenance and sufficient control effort can be sustained.

Барьерность городской среды и ее количественная оценка (на примере Москвы)

The article is devoted to the analysis of city boundaries-barriers in Moscow. City barrier is considered as one of the types of boundary between city nodal areas. Such boundary is rigid, clear, and quasilinear and it exists for a long time (decades or more). The barrier function of the urban environment is the degree of city disintegration into relatively loosely connected areas with internal integrity. There are three types of urban barriers’ genesis – automobile, rail, and water. Military, forested, industrial and fenced private areas are not considered because they do not divide city regions (social, economic, political etc.), but only separate selected areas from the urban environment (they are independent regions). There are barriers with maximum and minimum permeability of borders for each city. The boundaries’ permeability in this case refers to the possibility and degree of trespassing the barrier. The author names the city barrier with the maximum permeability “barrierstandard”, and the barrier with minimum permeability “barrier-filter”. Comparison of “barrier-standard” and “barrier-filter” demonstrates territorial differences within the city. Comparison of different types of barriers with the “barrier-standard” and the “barrier-filter” allows to measure representative permeability value in comparison with maximum and minimum values.

Improving food security in Nigeria through livestock innovation

The challenge of ensuring food security, which concerns not only the availability of food products but also their nutritional quality, is particularly important for modern Nigeria. The diet of the population lacks sufficient animal protein, which entails many health problems. Nigeria’s livestock sector, despite its considerable size, is not able to satisfy the demand of the rapidly growing population for animal protein. The steady development of animal husbandry in Nigeria is hindered by the escalating conflict between farmers and pastoralists, which causes loss of life, destruction of crops and livestock. The Nigerian authorities have made repeated attempts to find a solution to resolve the conflict, one of them being the decision to establish livestock ranches that would limit the grazing area and thereby eliminate the main cause of the tensions – constant migrations of livestock, but to no avail. Modern laws do not take into account many of the nuances that make attempts to organize livestock farming in fenced areas unfeasible. However, keeping farm animals on ranches is an innovative way to develop livestock in Nigeria. The author believes that Nigerian laws regulating the livestock sector require significant modification, where special attention should be paid to innovative components.

Socio-economic Profile of Sheep and Goat Rearers in Tahtay Adyabo District, Tigray, Ethiopia

The present study was conducted to assess the socio–economic profile of sheep and goat rearers in Tahtay Adyabo District, Tigray, Ethiopia. For this study 138 sample households were selected randomly. Of the total sample respondents, 26.1% of them owned sheep, 35.5% of them owned goats and 38.4% of them owned both sheep and goats. Of the 138 interviewed sheep and goat producing households, 81.2% were male headed and the rest 18.8% were female headed households. The average ages of the sampled respondents were 44 year. The average family size of the total sample respondents was found to be 6 persons. The average years of experience related to sheep and goat production was 10.7 years. The survey result with respect to land holding of the respondents reveals that an average size of land holding per household was 2.3 hectare. Sheep and goats are kept for income generation from sell of live sheep and goat, manure, meat and milk, saving insurance and for the sale of sheep and goat product purposes in the study area. Of the total sampled households 77(55.8%) of the respondents housed their sheep and goat in both open ended during dry season and hdmo (constructed shelter from stone or wood walls with soil roof during rainy season) at night, 34(24.6%) respondents used only constructed shelter made from stone with wood walls with soil roof, 22(16%) used shelter made of mud or wood walls with leaf roof and 5(3.6%) used fenced area without roof. Therefore provision of input technologies and modern practices, increasing the dimension of access to formal financial systems, provision of timely and adequate veterinary services and provision of timely and accurate market information are important for benefits of producers and for production and productivities of sheep and goats.

Does vegetation change over 28 years affect habitat use and reproductive success?

Abstract Individuals should prefer and use habitats that confer high fitness, but habitat use is not always adaptive. Vegetation in natural landscapes changes gradually and the ability of species to adaptively adjust their habitat use to long-term changes is largely unstudied. We studied nest patch and territory use over 28 yr in Orange-crowned Warblers (Oreothlypis celata) in a system that has undergone natural long-term changes in vegetation. Abundance of maple (Acer grandidentatum), its preferred nesting habitat, gradually declined from 1987 to 2015. We examined whether habitat use and its fitness consequences changed as the availability of preferred habitat decreased. We used resource selection function models to determine changes over time in the probability of using a nest patch given available patches, and the probability of using a territory given available territories. We estimated nest survival to evaluate changes over time in the fitness consequences of nest patch use. We also compared habitat use (nest patch and territory) and fitness (nest survival) between areas with naturally reduced abundance of maple and experimentally increased abundance of maple (fenced areas). Nest patch use depended on maple abundance and did not change drastically across 28 yr, even though the availability of preferred maple patches decreased over time. In contrast, nest survival tended to decrease over time. We did not see differences in nest patch use and nest survival between unfenced and fenced areas, unlike territory use, which increased with the abundance of maple in fenced areas and decreased in unfenced areas. Our study depicts one example of relatively unchanged habitat use in the face of decreased availability of preferred vegetation across years, with a resulting decrease in reproductive success. Investigating changes in habitat use and fitness consequences for animals exposed to long-term habitat change is necessary to understand adaptive behavioral responses.

Plant community recovery from intense deer grazing depends on reduction of graminoids and the time after exclosure installation in a semi-natural grassland.

Exclosures that exclude large herbivores are effective tools for the protection and restoration of grazed plant communities. However, previous studies have shown that the installation of an exclosure does not ensure plant community recovery. Our study aimed to determine the effects of the domination of unpalatable plants and the timing of exclosure installation on the plant community recovery process in montane grassland overgrazed by sika deer (Cervus nippon) in Japan. In this study we compared plant species composition and their cover with inside and outside exclosures installed at different times. Furthermore, we also compared them with those in 1981, when density of sika deer was very low. We used quadrats inside and outside fenced areas established in 2010 and 2011 to record both the cover and the height of species in each quadrat between 2011 and 2015. Plant cover, with the exception of graminoid species, increased in later years in all treatments. Non-metric multidimensional scaling (NMDS) plots showed significantly differentiated treatment trends. The species composition within the 2010 fenced area gradually shifted to greater similarity with the species composition reported in 1981. The plant community in the 2011 fenced area was slower to recover. Compositions of plant communities outside the fenced areas hardly changed from 2011 to 2015. Chao’s dissimilarity index decreased over time between the plant community surveyed between 2011 and 2015 and the past plant community in 1981 within the exclosures, and was higher in the 2011 fenced area than in the 2010 fenced area. In conclusion, we show that the reduction of graminoids and the time after exclosure installation were important for plant community recovery from deer grazing damage. A delay in exclosure installation of one year could result in a delay in plant community recovery of more than one year.

Removal and eradication of introduced species in a fenced reserve: Quantifying effort, costs and results

SummaryGiven the difficulty of effective landscape‐scale control of introduced predators, fenced areas that exclude them (i.e. ‘mainland islands') can play an important role in conserving threatened mammal species in Australia. Despite this, the effort required to eradicate or remove introduced species from within fenced areas remains poorly quantified. This study was conducted at Mt Gibson Wildlife Sanctuary in semi‐arid Western Australia, where a 43 km predator‐exclusion fence surrounding 7832 ha was completed in June 2014. The subsequent effort expended in eradicating feral Cat (Felis catus) and removing European Rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) populations was logged daily during 11 months of active population removal and 3.5 months of monitoring. The total effort expended on cat eradication, rabbit removal and monitoring included over 4800 person‐hours of work and nearly 67,000 km of driving (of which 6700 km was for spotlighting), and the conduct of over 15,000 trap nights, 2300 km of sand tracking transects, and over 7800 camera‐trap nights. Total costs (in 2015 figures) were estimated at just over AUD $390,000, which equates to approximately $50 per hectare. Cage trapping was most efficacious for catching cats, although it took nine months to capture the last individual, which was detected independently by both sand tracking transects and camera traps. This research provides baseline data on the resources required for future eradication and removal projects, particularly those within fenced reserves.

Floristic diversity of Wadi Ar'ar, Saudi Arabia

ABSTRACTOne of the most countries containing which have biologically diverse, is Saudi Arabia. Among the plant species recorded in Saudi Arabia, about 30% are rare and around 18 plant species are thought to have been disappeared locally. The study aims to provide the researchers in various scientific fields with a list of wild plants available in the examined region. The current work focused on an analysis of life forms, life span and chorotypes in four fenced areas (Aoasa, Mayla, Goraba and Aqra) of wadi Ar'ar. A bout of 273 taxa belonging to 35 families and 169 genera of vascular plants were recorded. Phytogeographically, the listed species were classified into three groups; monoregional, biregional and pluriregional. Twenty four species were listed as cosmopolitan, paleotropical or pantropical. One important step in preserving our wild plants is to expand knowledge of vegetation and find solutions to preserve the environment and species from extinction.

Niche overlap and dietary resource partitioning in an African large carnivore guild

AbstractUnderstanding and quantifying a large carnivores’ feeding behaviour is a key component in determining its functional significance in an ecosystem, both in terms of its top‐down influence on prey species, but also its relationships with sympatric carnivores. Dietary overlap is one of the numerous niche dimensions used to characterize resource partitioning and potential competition within a community. We characterize the diet, potential dietary niche overlap and prey preference of a large African carnivore guild on small fenced protected areas. To quantify the potential inter‐ and intraspecific foraging competition, we analysed 5,128 kills, representing 35 prey species made by African wild dogs Lycaon pictus (n = 553), cheetahs Acinonyx jubatus (1,427), lions Panthera leo (2,648) and leopards P. pardus (500). Our results show that large African carnivores in small protected areas are exposed to considerable overlap in dietary resource utilization. At the interspecific level, African wild dogs and cheetahs displayed the greatest vulnerability to potential dietary competition. Lions exhibited marked differences in prey preference, mass and species utilization compared to the other carnivores. African wild dogs and cheetah females with dependent offspring occupied the greatest potential for dietary competition within the large carnivore guild. Using a case study based on the preferred biomass of prey available, we estimate the sustainable density of large carnivores at a small fenced prospective African wild dog reintroduction site. African wild dogs displayed the lowest mean predicted density compared to all sympatric predators with an expected population size of 7 individuals. Our research highlights the need to assess the influence of competitive forces in structuring and restoring large predators to portions of their historical range by identifying species most vulnerable to a potential reintroduction attempt. In the absence of controlled experiments, elucidating the influences of exploitation competition is challenging, and only through manipulating sympatric species presence and densities can these complex interactions be fully understood.

FOOD HABITS OF NORTHERN DEER, CONDUCING THEIR INVASIATION BY HELMINTHS

Reindeer, in contrary to the notion of him as a ruminant animal, moreover, is able to develop strategies against ectoparasites and has a specific eating habits, increasing its chances of helminths invasion. Thus, there are reports of the reindeer eating snow soaked in human urine, brackish soil, horns of both reindeer and elks, chicks, bird eggs and excrement, as well as lemmings. Using the method of a passive experiment (observation), reindeer have been investigated in a recreational farm in the Leningrad Region (60°8′32′′N, 30°19′35′′E60.142207, 30.326466) starting from February 2018. The animals of the parent flock were brought there from the Murmansk region, and in May-June 2018 females calved. Animals are kept in a fenced area in conditions close to natural. During the growing season, they eat grass (with the addition of concentrates), in the winter they are fed with lichen. Fresh water is always available in drinkers. Photo registration of animals was carried out using a 5D Mark II (Canon) SLR camera and Xperia XA2 smartphone (SONY) camera. In addition to typical ruminant eating behavior (grazing, rumination), synchronized drinking and urination/defecation were recorded. This illustrates the route of invasion of reindeer with elafostrongylosis (previously diagnosed in these animals) – namely, through the absorption of freshwater mollusks, which, along with land gastropods, are intermediate hosts of Elaphostrongulys rangiferi. Thus, it was discovered that reindeer not only tend to avoid water consumption from reservoirs polluted with feces and urine in the presence of an alternative, but also intentionally prefer this method to compensate for the loss of minerals.

Polish Pony Changes Lower Layer Biodiversity in Old Growth Scots Pine Stands

The study examines the influence of Polish primitive horse grazing on vegetation in deciduous and coniferous old forest stands in north-east Poland. It was conducted in both forest sites in two complexes located in: (i) the fenced area of the Popielno Research Station of the Polish Academy of Sciences, with free-living Polish pony [Polish primitive horse (Equus ferus caballus Linnaeus, 1758)] in 130-year-old stands, and (ii) in the open 116-year-old managed (harvested) Maskulińskie Forest District, without horses. In both areas the stands are inhabited by free-living red and roe deer. The impact of forest animals on ground cover layer as well as on understory shrub layer and undergrowth was compared. Very significant differences in the structure of the understory and undergrowth (above 0.5 m) layer vegetation communities between both areas and type of stands were found. The results suggest that the presence of the Polish horse substantially changed the species composition and increased the species diversity of the ground layer and shrub layer both in the coniferous forest and deciduous forest habitats. The height of the shrub layer trees was lower by 30% in the area with the Polish horse. The level of biodiversity of forest plants was dependent on the presence of the Polish horse, which in the past was one of the natural inhabitants of forests in the area of research.

A viable tiger population in Similipal Tiger Reserve, India? Calculating if the ungulate prey base is limiting

Low ungulate density can be a factor in limiting tiger populations, so to better manage tiger reserves one must be able assess if this is the case or if other factors might be more important. Here, we quantify ungulate density in a tiger reserve in India, compare it to other reserves, and estimate the tiger carrying capacity in order to assess this reserve can support a viable tiger population. Specifically, we studied the Similipal Tiger Reserve (STR), Odisha, India, from 2011 to 2014. The line transect method was used to estimate population density of available major ungulate prey species, i.e. sambar Rusa unicolor, wild pig Sus scrofa, barking deer Muntiacus muntjac, chital Axis axis and mouse deer Moschiola indica. A remarkable increase in ungulate prey density was noted in the intensive study area over the study period from 4.3 animals per km2 in the pre-monsoon season of 2011 to 28.9 animals per km2 in the post-monsoon season of 2014. This estimated ungulate density is very low compared to other tiger reserves of India. Density figures of ungulates when multiplied with the average weight of the respective species gave a biomass density of 1599.4 kg km-2. This data was then used in two published empirical models to obtain estimates of tiger carrying capacity in STR. We used two empirical models from the published literature and concluded that the tiger carrying capacity of Similipal Tiger Reserve ranges between 1.3 and 3.8 tigers per 100 km2, much lower than our current estimates of tiger density. This suggests that the tiger population is below carrying capacity or that the estimated tiger population in critical tiger habitat falls below the threshold number. We suggest that the creation of large meadows for herbivores and the establishment of suitable fenced areas to augment breeding of the prey species chital and sambar are necessary to support a viable tiger population in the Similipal Tiger Reserve.