Feminine Gender Role Research Articles

Conformity to feminine norms and self-objectification in self-identified feminist and non-feminist women

This study investigated the association between the endorsement of feminine gender role norms and self-objectifying beliefs and behaviors in self-identified feminist and non-feminist women. One hundred and ninety-seven predominantly White heterosexual cisgender women attending a large university in southwestern Canada completed the study questionnaires for course credit. A one-way ANOVA demonstrated no differences in self-objectification between self-identified feminist and non-feminist women. Compared to non-feminist women, however, feminist women were less likely to endorse feminine norms for sexual fidelity, romantic relationships, and domesticity. Regression analyses indicated more endorsement of thinness, investment in appearance, and romantic relationships and less endorsement of domesticity accounted for unique variance in self-objectification. Overall, this study provides further evidence for the association between endorsement of feminine norms, especially the norms for beauty and romance, and the adoption of an objectified self-view, even among feminist women.

Masculinity might be more toxic than we think: The influence of gender roles on trait emotional manipulation

Previous research has established sex differences in emotional manipulation; specifically, men are more likely than women to engage in emotional manipulation. This study aimed to explicate these sex differences by investigating, for the first time, the influence of gender roles in the prediction of trait emotional manipulation. Participants were 435 females and 139 males (N = 574) who reported their levels of masculine and feminine gender roles, as well as primary and secondary psychopathy, trait emotional intelligence, and trait emotional manipulation. Separate regressions were conducted for each sex. As predicted, for both males and females, masculine gender roles positively predicted emotional manipulation. For males, no other predictors were significant, however there was evidence of statistical suppression for feminine gender roles. For females, low female gender roles, high primary and secondary psychopathy, and high emotional intelligence all significantly predicted emotional manipulation; the effect of emotional intelligence was via statistical suppression. This study represents an important first step in understanding the interplay between socialisation and emotional manipulation. Future research would benefit from using a longitudinal approach to determine whether emotional manipulation can be reduced through shifting gender roles.

Traditional Gender Roles and Their Connections to Relational Uncertainty and Relational Satisfaction

ABSTRACTThe current study utilised an adult population (N = 294) to investigate the relationships between traditional gender role endorsement, relational uncertainty and relational satisfaction. Specifically, it was hypothesised that individuals who more strongly endorsed traditional gender roles would report significantly less relational uncertainty. Further it was proposed that relational uncertainty would mediate a significant association between endorsement of traditional gender roles and relational satisfaction. Both hypotheses were supported. Implications of these results on the literature surrounding masculine and feminine gender roles are discussed, as well as some considerations for how future research might consider traditional gender role endorsement.

Traditional Femininity Versus Strong Black Women Ideologies and Stress Among Black Women

The construct of femininity has typically been conceptualized from a Eurocentric perspective as traditional femininity ideology (TFI). This hegemonic femininity construction might not be fully applicable to African American women given their unique history and experiences. Moreover, the strong Black woman ideology (SBWI) which, although formulated during slavery, has become an adaptive and idealized cultural idealization. Both constructs have been associated with stress. The current study sought to investigate the relative strength of the links between TFI versus SBWI and perceived stress among a sample of African American women, and whether these relationships were moderated by feminine gender role stress and racial stress. Participants were 292 African American women recruited via social media and students from a Midwestern university for a web-based survey. As hypothesized, SBWI accounted for unique variance in perceived stress; however, TFI did not explain any of the variance. Results also indicated that gender role stress approached significance in its moderation of the link between TFI and perceived stress, although racial stress did significantly moderate the relationship between SBWI and perceived stress.

Influences of Femininity and Maternal Relationships on Anxiety and Adjustment in Emerging Adulthood

This study examined how maternal acceptance, care, and overprotection, along with individuals’ feminine gender orientation, impacted anxiety and adjustment among emerging adults. Data were collected via survey packets from 106 college undergraduates at a university in New England and analyzed using multiple regression models. Results indicated that maternal acceptance predicted better psychological adjustment above and beyond the influence of other parenting characteristics and gender role ideology; participants who felt accepted by their mothers growing up were more likely to have positive adjustment. However, with respect to anxiety, results suggested that having a more feminine gender role orientation was more strongly related to increased anxiety than maternal care, overprotection, and acceptance. These findings contribute to the understanding of unique factors that may serve as risk or resilience factors in the psychological well-being of young adults.

Influence of feminine gender norms in symptoms of anxiety in the Spanish context

The purpose of this study is to evaluate whether conformity with a traditional female role is related to the presence of anxiety symptoms in a sample of women (N = 234). To do so, symptoms of anxiety were evaluated through the Inventory of Situations and Responses of Anxiety (ISRA; Miguel-Tobal, & Cano-Vindel, 2002) and compliance with feminine gender roles was measured through the Inventory of Conformity to Feminine Norms (CFNI; Mahalik et al., 2005). Our results showed that higher levels of Cognitive Anxiety in women are related to higher compliance with the Thinness, Sexual Fidelity and Investment in Appearance dimensions of the CFNI. Also, a significant relationship was found between Total Anxiety and the Thinness dimension of the CFNI. These results suggest that some variables related to gender are related to anxiety responses, and that this relationship could occur through different interactions among cognitive variables.

Predictors of Turkish University students’ marital attitudes

In Turkey, it has been observed that marital attitudes have changed in recent years. In this study, it is aimed to examine the relationship between university students’ marital attitudes and mate selection strategies, gender roles, sex, relationship status and age variables. The sample of the study is made up of 706 (412 females, 294 males) university students. As the data collection instruments, Inonu Marital Attitude Scale, Mate Selection Strategies Inventory and Bem Sex Role Inventory were used in the study. The data analysis was performed using hierarchical regression technique. According to the study findings, virginity and physical attributes mate selection strategies, feminine gender role, age, sex and relationship status variables are significant predictors of university students’ marital attitudes. It was found that importance given to physical attributes and virginity were associated with more positive attitudes towards marriage. Having a higher level of feminine characteristics was associated with more positive attitudes towards marriage.

A study on feminine gender role stressors among female workers: Development of a gender role stressor scale for women and examining demographic differences

A study on feminine gender role stressors among female workers: Development of a gender role stressor scale for women and examining demographic differences

Gender and sex differences in carers’ health, burden and work outcomes: Canadian carers of community-dwelling older people with multiple chronic conditions

Using two waves of survey data on family carers caring for older adults with multiple chronic conditions in Ontario and Alberta, this article provides a sex and gender analysis of 194 carers’ health outcomes. Gender and sex differences were examined on the following health outcomes: general self-efficacy; physical and mental health composite scores; overall quality of life; and the Zarit Burden Inventory – as well as experiences with work interference for carer-employees. Multivariate ordinary least squares linear regressions were used to estimate the effects of sex and gender, controlling for the carer’s socio-demographic and geographic characteristics, as well as for the characteristics of the care recipients. Sex and gender were found to have differentiated effects on each health outcome examined, providing evidence for specifically targeting health interventions by sex and gender. First, sex matters, as illustrated by the fact that female carers were found to be experiencing more negative health impacts than male carers (shown in the physical composite score and the quality of life score). This suggests that health-related interventions need to be targeted at female carers. Further, male carers are more likely to experience less carer burden, and more work interference, than female carers. Second, gender matters, as illustrated by the fact that masculine and androgynous genders showed significantly positive associations with general self-efficacy. This suggests that carers with feminine and undifferentiated gender roles experience more challenges with general-self-efficacy and could benefit from training and educational interventions to enhance their confidence in the caring role.

Black Adolescent Males: Intersections Among Their Gender Role Identity and Racial Identity and Associations With Self-Concept (Global and School).

Intersectional approaches for understanding identity have gained momentum in the social sciences. Black adolescent males are often perceived as threatening, underachieving, and hypermasculine, which is reinforced through media outlets and psychological research that portray them as a monolith rather than a heterogeneous group with multiple intersecting identities. This cross-sectional study of 70 Black adolescent males between 14 and 18years old simultaneously explores their race and gender identities and associations with self-concept (global and school). Results demonstrated that participants reported a combination of feminine and masculine gender roles, rather than hypermasculine. A canonical correlation analysis found that Black racial identity attitudes (RIAS-L) and gender roles simultaneously contributed to significant relationships with total and school self-concept. Study limitations and future directions for research and practice are discussed.

Male involvement in maternal healthcare through Community- based Health Planning and Services: the views of the men in rural Ghana

BackgroundThe need to promote maternal health in Ghana has committed the government to extend maternal healthcare services to the door steps of rural families through the community-based Health Planning and Services. Based on the concerns raised in previous studies that male spouses were indifferent towards maternal healthcare, this study sought the views of men on their involvement in maternal healthcare in their respective communities and at the household levels in the various Community-based Health Planning and Services zones in Awutu-Senya West District in the Central Region of Ghana.MethodsA qualitative method was employed. Focus groups and individual interviews were conducted with married men, community health officers, community health volunteers and community leaders. The participants were selected using purposive, quota and snowball sampling techniques. The study used thematic analysis for analysing the data.ResultsThe study shows varying involvement of men, some were directly involved in feminine gender roles; others used their female relatives and co-wives to perform the women's roles that did not have space for them. They were not necessarily indifferent towards maternal healthcare, rather, they were involved in the spaces provided by the traditional gender division of labour. Amongst other things, the perpetuation and reinforcement of traditional gender norms around pregnancy and childbirth influenced the nature and level of male involvement.ConclusionsSustenance of male involvement especially, husbands and CHVs is required at the household and community levels for positive maternal outcomes. Ghana Health Service, health professionals and policy makers should take traditional gender role expectations into consideration in the planning and implementation of maternal health promotion programmes.

Expresión y trabajo de los Muxe´del Istmo de Tehuantepec, en Juchitán de Zaragoza, México

El artículo aborda la identidad de género en un grupo indígena zapoteco-hablante, el contexto sociocultural que lo enmarca y la participación económica del grupo en la región de Juchitán de Zaragoza, Oaxaca, México. Se presenta el caso de los muxe’, hombres que pueden o no desempeñar roles de género masculinos o femeninos, que construyen una identidad de género distinta a la identidad masculina dominante y que se identifican como una opción al esquema binario de género dominante en México. Un muxe’ se autodenomina y reconoce con una práctica sexo-genérica diferente de mujer y diferente de hombre. Método: El énfasis del artículo es en el grupo que se autodenomina muxe’ y en las personas zapotecas de la región con las que este grupo interactúa cotidianamente en los espacios laborales, lúdicos, comunales y familiares. La metodología empleada retoma el estudio de caso crítico con una perspectiva cualitativa. Los ejes de análisis fueron los cambios económicos en la región y la construcción de la masculinidad en la comunidad de Juchitán. Se encontró que un muxe’ es un hombre que voluntariamente decide adoptar un rol de género diferente al sexo biológico con el que nace.Resultados: Se encontró que un muxe’ es un hombre que voluntariamente decide adoptar un rol de género diferente al sexo biológico con el que nace. Los resultados muestran la importancia de la etnia y el manejo del idioma y cosmovisión compartida entre los hombres que se autodenominan zapotecas y que se reconocen como muxe’, así como la importancia que para este grupo tienen las prácticas tradicionales rituales, los mecanismos de distribución de recursos y las redes.Discusión: La expresión hegemónica de la masculinidad en el entorno nacional se funde con expresiones sexo-genéricas y culturales indígenas sujetas a procesos de cambio y modernización. Esta fusión no tiene como resultado una relación de mediación y liderazgo para todos los grupos autodenominados muxe’, ni de aceptación de su condición en el entorno nacional. Existe tensión entre las prácticas ancestrales y la orientación binaria de género dominante que se traduce en discriminación hacia los hombres muxe’, discriminación que se acentúa si las prácticas laborales se asocian con el trabajo femenino.

Transgender hormone therapy: understanding international variation in practice

The management of gender dysphoria varies substantially around the world, with respect to models of service delivery, individual eligibility and funding for transition, access to relevant specialists, as well as cultural, religious, and legal factors, and to the cross-sex hormone treatment (CSHT) regimens used. Different countries and cultures also vary in their sociocultural tolerance of gender fluidity during the process of transition. In this Comment, we highlight contrasting practices in five countries where gender reassignment is well established, including both high-income and lower-income nations, and those in which state involvement in health care ranges from minimal to highly centralised. We focus on the UK, the USA, and Iran, but also refer to Thailand and the Netherlands; Iran and Thailand are have the highest numbers of gender reassignment surgical procedures worldwide. Oestrogen and anti-androgen therapy for transgender womenTransgender women experience lifelong gender dysphoria due to a gender assignment at birth that is incongruent with their gender identity. They often seek hormone therapy, with or without surgery, to improve their gender dysphoria and to better align their physical and psychological features with a more feminine gender role. Some of the desired physical changes from oestrogen and anti-androgen therapy include decreased body and facial hair, decreased muscle mass, breast growth, and redistribution of fat. Full-Text PDF Testosterone therapy for transgender menTestosterone therapy is a cornerstone of medical treatment for transgender men who choose to undergo it. The goal of testosterone therapy is usually to achieve serum testosterone concentrations in the male reference range. Testosterone has several desired effects as well as undesired and unknown effects. The desired effects include increased facial and body hair, increased lean mass and strength, decreased fat mass, deepening of the voice, increased sexual desire, cessation of menstruation, clitoral enlargement, and reductions in gender dysphoria, perceived stress, anxiety, and depression. Full-Text PDF

At War: Thea von Harbou, Women, and the Nation

The outbreak of the First World War coincided with debates about the role of women in German society. Most female activists saw the war as an opportunity to broaden women's sphere of activity and influence. The author Thea von Harbou's fictional and essayistic works weighed in on the question. Although scholars characterize Harbou as a political conservative, their lack of attention to her bestselling fiction obscures Harbou's conflicted thought regarding feminine gender roles that she herself transgressed as a childless breadwinner. The author argues that Harbou's oeuvre reveals her profound ambivalence in that it calls on women to adhere to the domestic ideal, yet undercuts that message by presenting an alternative to it, the heroic masculine woman. Harbou's essays and fiction disparage women's domestic work as well as praise it. In terms of feminine gender roles, it's difficult to characterize Harbou as a conservative, as she called on women to break gender norms, including the comfort of male protection, for the good of the nation.

Gender conformity, self-objectification, and body image for sorority and nonsorority women: A closer look

ABSTRACTSororities have been identified as placing young women at risk for body image concerns due to a focus on traditional gender role norms and objectification of women. Objective: This study assessed the relationship between conformity to feminine gender role norms, self-objectification, and body image surveillance among undergraduate women. Participants: In a random sample of undergraduates, the authors examined data from sorority and nonsorority women. Methods: In a random sample of undergraduate women, the authors assessed the impact of traditional feminine gender role norms on self-objectification, body image, and feedback regarding physical appearance for sorority and nonsorority undergraduate women. Results: Three linear regressions were conducted, and only conformity to feminine gender role norms contributed significantly in each regression model. Conclusions: Regardless of sorority membership, conformity to feminine gender role norms was found to significantly contribute to increased body consciousness, negative body image, and feedback on physical appearance.

Prediction of Maternal-Fetal Attachment Based on the Components of Gender Role in Pregnant women

Background and aim: Maternal concept is part of the feminine gender role. The important part of the maternal concept is the unique relationship experience between mother and child that begins with maternal-fetal attachment(MFA) during pregnancy. The aim of this study is predict the MFA according to Gender role in pregnant women in Shiraz city. Methods:This descriptive correlational study was conducted on 171 primiparous and multiparous women with Gestational age above 24 weeks of pregnancy reffering to the obstetric and midwifery department of Shiraz –Kowsar Hospital during 2 monthes period from May to June 2015, which were selected using the Purposive sampling.Data were collected using a Demographic obstetric questionnaire including age and obstetric information,Cranly’s Maretnal Fetal Attachment questionnaire(validity:0.85) and Bem Gender Role questionnaire(reliability:0.90) were used during this study. For data analysis Pearson correlation coefficient and multiple regression were performed,using spss version 16. Results: Results showed a statistically significant correlation between components of femininity and masculinity of gender role with maternal-fetal attachment. Maximum correlation was between Masculinity and MFA ( R=0.33, P=0.001) and then between Femininity and MFA (R=0.24,P=0.009).There was no correlation between neutral and MFA.(R=0.12,P=0.084) Almost 14% of the variance in maternal-fetal attachment was explained by gender role . According to the comparison of regression coefficients, the femininity indicator (β=0.159 ,P=0.015) and masculinity indicator (β=0.266, P=0.001) were positively predicted the maternal-fetal attachment, but neutral component (β=0.109, P=0.064) was not predicted the maternal-fetal attachment (Table 2). Conclusions: Gender role is part of mental health that predicts MFA during pregnancy. Mental health of mother and fetus can be improved by identifying mothers based Gender role. These finding could be used for promoting maternal fetal attachment behaviors during pregnancy.

Sex and Gender Roles in Relation to Mental Health and Allostatic Load

Beyond male/female binaries, gender roles represent masculine and feminine traits that we assimilate and enact throughout life span development. Bem proposed that "androgynous" individuals adeptly adapt to different contexts by alternating from a strong repertoire of both masculine and feminine gender roles. By contrast, "undifferentiated" individuals may not adapt as well to social norms because of weak self-endorsed masculinity and femininity. Among 204 adults (mean [standard error] age = 40.4 [0.9] years; 70% women) working in a psychiatric hospital, we hypothesized that androgynous individuals would present better mental health and less physiological dysregulations known as allostatic load (AL) than undifferentiated individuals. AL was indexed using 20 biomarkers using the conventional "all-inclusive" formulation that ascribes cutoffs without regard for sex or an alternative "sex-specific" formulation with cutoffs tailored for each sex separately while controlling for sex hormones (testosterone, estradiol, progesterone). Well-validated questionnaires were used. Independent of sex, androgynous individuals experienced higher self-esteem and well-being and lower depressive symptoms than did undifferentiated individuals. Men manifested higher AL than did women using the all-inclusive AL index (p = .044, ηP = 0.025). By contrast, the sex-specific AL algorithm unmasked a sex by gender roles interaction for AL (p = .043, ηP = 0.048): with the highest AL levels in undifferentiated men. Analysis using a gender index based on seven gendered constructs revealed that a greater propensity toward feminine characteristics correlated only with elevated sex-specific AL (r = 0.163, p = .025). Beyond providing psychobiological evidence for Bem's theory, this study highlights how sex-specific AL formulations detect the effects of sociocultural gender.

Men and the Middle: Gender Differences in Dyadic Compromise Effects

Individual decision makers show robust tendencies toward choosing compromise options. But what happens when consumers make choices with someone else? This article examines the choice of compromise options in joint dyadic decisions. Findings reveal that preferences for compromise alternatives replicate in mixed-gender and female-female dyads as among individuals but are attenuated when two males make a choice together. Moreover, when two males make joint choices, their tendency to choose the compromise alternative decreases not only relative to other types of pairs but also to male and female individual decision makers. Evidence is presented that this happens because male-male dyadic contexts cue gender dichotomization, behavior that is consistent with masculine but not feminine gender norms. Because the extremity in decision making is maximally consistent with masculine but not feminine gender role norms, male-male dyads exhibit lower preferences for compromise options. However, if men have an opportunity to signal masculinity to one another prior to making joint compromise choices, male-male dyads prefer compromise options at proportions no different from female-female dyads. This work brings together the judgment and decision-making literature with insights from the social psychology literature, identifying a case when gender role norms have profound influences on classic judgment and decision-making effects.

Measuring gender when you don’t have a gender measure: constructing a gender index using survey data

BackgroundDisentangling the impacts of sex and gender in understanding male and female differences is increasingly recognised as an important aspect for advancing research and addressing knowledge gaps in the field of work-health. However, achieving this goal in secondary data analyses where direct measures of gender have not been collected is challenging. This study outlines the development of a gender index, focused on gender roles and institutionalised gender, using secondary survey data from the Canadian Labour Force survey. Using this index we then examined the distribution of gender index scores among men and women, and changes in gender roles among male and female labour force participants between 1997 and 2014.MethodsWe created our Labour Force Gender Index (LFGI) using information in four areas: responsibility for caring for children; occupation segregation; hours of work; and level of education. LFGI scores ranged from 0 to 10, with higher scores indicating more feminine gender roles. We examined correlations between each component in our measure and our total LFGI score. Using multivariable linear regression we examined change in LFGI score for male and female labour force participants between 1997 and 2014.ResultsAlthough women had higher LFGI scores, indicating greater feminine gender roles, men and women were represented across the range of LFGI scores in both 1997 and 2014. Correlations indicated no redundancy between measures used to calculate LFGI scores. Between 1997 and 2014 LFGI scores increased marginally for men and decreased marginally for women. However, LFGI scores among women were still more than 1.5 points higher on average than for men in 2014.ConclusionsWe have described and applied a method to create a measure of gender roles using survey data, where no direct measure of gender (masculinity/femininity) was available. This measure showed good variation among both men and women, and was responsive to change over time. The article concludes by outlining an approach to use this measure to examine the relative contribution of gender and sex on differences in health status (or other outcomes) between men and women.

Gender Role Orientation Moderates Effects of Stereotype Activation on Test Performances

Abstract. We investigated the moderation of effects of activated gender stereotypes on the performance of women in tests of different ability domains. The Bem Sex Role Inventory assessed masculinity and femininity. The difference of the masculinity and femininity scores served as a continuous independent variable of gender role orientation. Only participants with feminine gender role orientation suffered from stereotype activation with regard to mental rotation and math performance. In contrast, participants with feminine gender role orientation profited from stereotype activation with regard to emotional sensitivity performance. These results demonstrate a generally higher susceptibility to gender stereotypes of women with feminine gender role orientation. Higher self-relevance of stereotypes was associated with stronger stereotype threat, but also stronger stereotype lift or boost.