Female Labor Force Participation Rate Research Articles

Female labour force participation rate and economic growth in sub-Saharan Africa: “a liability or an asset”

PurposeThis paper aimed examining the contribution of female labour force participation rate on economic growth in the sub-Saharan Africa during the period of 1991–2019.Design/methodology/approachThe study employed a sample of 42 sub-Sahara African countries using annual data from the World Bank development indicators. The long-run causal effect of female labour force and economic growth was analysed using the Autoregressive Distributed Lag model and Granger causality test for causality and direction since the variables did not have the same order of integration.FindingsThe estimated results indicate that a long-run causal relationship exists between female labour force and economic growth in sub-Sahara Africa and the direction of causality is unidirectional running from economic growth to female labour force. The results also showed that female labour force participation rate negatively and significantly contributes to economic growth (GDP) is sub-Saharan Africa in the long run with an insignificantly negative contribution in the short run hence a liability.Research limitations/implicationsThe author recommends the promotion of women's economic empowerment to encourage female labour force participation to increase economic growth in the entire sub-Saharan region.Practical implicationsThis paper adds to existing literature by using more comprehensive and up to econometric analysis and variables. This paper also makes further recommendation on how female labour force participation can boost economic growth in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA).Originality/valueThis paper adds to existing literature by using more comprehensive and up to econometric analysis and variables. This paper also makes further recommendation on how female labour force participation can boost economic growth in SSA.

Understanding the Economic Impact of COVID-19 on Women

Compared with previous recessions, the recession induced by COVID-19 had a greater impact on women's employment and labor force participation relative to men. But the big divide was less between men and women than it was between the more and the less educated. Contrary to many accounts, women did not exit the labor force in large numbers, and they did not greatly decrease their hours of work. The aggregate female labor force participation rate did not plummet. That said, the ability to balance caregiving and work differed greatly by education, occupation, and race. The more educated could work from home. Those who began the period employed in various in-person service occupations and establishments experienced large reductions in employment. Black women experienced a more negative impact beyond other factors considered, and the health impact of COVID-19 is a probable reason. The estimation of the pandemic's impact depends on the counterfactual used. The real story of women during the pandemic is that employed women who were educating their children and working adult daughters who were caring for their parents were stressed because they were in the labor force, not because they left.

Female Labour Force Participation Rates in Assam: Trends, Composition and Determinants

In India, since the 1970s, there is a declining trend in the female labour force participation. Given the fast economic growth, declining fertility rate and rising women’s educational enrolment in the past few decades, this decline is puzzling. Assam is not an exception to this trend of declining female labour force participation rate (LFPR). This study is an attempt to analyse the patterns and determinants of female LFPR in Assam during the period from 2004 to 2011. The analyses are based on National Sample Survey Office (NSSO) unit-level data of three rounds of employment and unemployment surveys. This article probes female LFPR across age cohorts, education, economic groups, social groups, status, etc. Probit regression models are used on the latest available data. An important result of the article is, status concerns measured by caste interacted with land possession impede the labour force participation of women.

The effect of gender equality on the carbon intensity of well-being: panel data analysis for the MENA economies 1995-2018

PurposeThis paper aims to explore the ecological efficiency through assessing the relation of the “carbon intensity of well-being” (CIWB) to gender equality, gross domestic product (GDP)/capita, the urban intensity of the population, the age structure of the population, foreign direct investment as a percentage of GDP and manufacturing as a percentage of GDP.Design/methodology/approachCIWB equation is estimated for a panel of 18 MENA economies and Turkey over the period 1995–2018 using the two-way fixed effects Prais–Winsten regression with panel-corrected standard errors.FindingsThe elasticity coefficients obtained from the estimated models indicated mixed effects on CIWB. While the increase of female educational attainment, accompanied with an increase in the female labor force participation rate, reduce CIWB, the younger female population and the younger population, in general, increase CIWB. Furthermore, while increasing FDI inflows reduces CIWB, increasing the manufacturing share of GDP increases CIWB.Originality/valueThe pursuit of Sustainable Development Goals worldwide has moved the relevant literature on climate change mitigation and adaptation measures to a new level, where using the CIWB method is increasingly used to reflect carbon dioxide emissions per capita unit of expected lifespan. The present paper’s contribution to the literature is two-fold: one is computing and estimating the CIWB to examine ecological efficiency for the middle east and north africa (MENA) economies and Turkey over the period of study; and two is integrating and validating the beneficial impacts of integrating the gender equality dimension in the CIWB–climate change literature.

Determination of Fertility Rate between Districts/Cities in Riau Province

This study aims to identify and determine the effect of purchasing power, female labor force participation rates (wLFPR), and contraception against fertility between regency/municipalities in Riau Province. The analytical tool used is panel data regression using the Random Effect Model. Based on the data processing results, the highest fertility was in Rokan Hilir Regency, and the lowest was Siak Regency. Econometric results show that purchasing power and contraceptives positively and significantly affect fertility. In contrast, the female labor force participation rate has a negative and significant impact on fertility in the regency/municipality of Riau Province. Keywords: Contraceptives; Female Labor; Fertility; Panel Data; Purchasing Power.

The Changing Patterns and Determinants of Stay-at-Home Motherhood in Urban China, 1982 to 2015

This paper documents trends in and examines determinants of stay-at-home motherhood in urban China from 1982 to 2015. China once had the world’s leading female labor force participation rate. Since the economic reforms starting from the early 1980s, however, some mothers have been withdrawing from the labor force due to diminished state support, a rise in intensive parenting, and heightened work-family conflicts. Based on data from the 1982, 1990, and 2000 Chinese censuses, the 2005 mini-census, and the 2006–2015 Chinese General Social Survey, we find mothers’ non-employment increased for every educational group and grew at a much faster rate among mothers than it did among fathers, particularly those with small children. Moreover, the negative relationships between mothers’ education and non-employment, and between mothers’ family income and non-employment weakened overtime. This is possibly due to women with more established resources can better “afford” the single-earner arrangement and also more emphasize the importance of intensive parenting, than their less resourced counterparts. These findings signal the resurgence of a gendered division of labor in urban China.

The Effect of Paid Maternity Leave on Child Health in the Middle East and North Africa

Background: The paid maternity leave is one of the factors affecting the health status of children, but this maternity leave in the Middle East and North Africa is not only less than in developed countries but also the mortality rate of children under 5 years is higher in these countries. Therefore, this study was conducted to investigate the paid maternity leave on children's health in the Middle East and North Africa. Methods: This descriptive-analytical and applied study was conducted by Panel data regression method with cross-sectional dependence and Common Correlated Effect Mean Group (CCEMG) and Augmented Mean Group (AMG) estimators for 2000 and 2019. The statistical population was 12 countries in the Middle East and North Africa, and annual time series data were extracted from World Bank databases. The study models, cross-sectional dependency tests, Pesaran unit root, Westerlund cointegration, and other required tests were estimated in Stata 16 software. Results: The average paid maternity leave for 12 countries in the Middle East and North African countries between 2000 and 2019 was 68.8 days, and in 2019, it was 78 days. The effect of maternity leave on infant mortality rate in the Augmented Mean Group and Common Correlated Effect Mean Group were -0.0018 and -0.0006, respectively, and, the effect on the under-5 mortality rate in the mentioned methods was -0.0023 and -0.0007, respectively. The coefficient of female labor force participation rate on infant mortality rate was -0.056 and the under-5 mortality rate was -0.049. Conclusion: Increasing maternity leave had a negative effect on infant and child mortality rates. Also, health expenditures and female labor force participation rates had a negative effect, and carbon dioxide production had a positive effect on infant mortality rates; therefore, policies to increase paid maternity leave for mothers, as well as policies to increase maternal employment, are proposed to increase fertility while increasing the health of infants.

The Labor Market Effects of State and Local Expansions of the Earned Income Tax Credit

This study analyzes the labor market impact of state and local supplements to the federal Earned Income Tax Credit (EITC) program. Using Current Population Survey data from 1984 to 2020, I examine the differential impact of the state and local government supplements of the EITC on the labor force participation rates of married women. I examine whether the substantial expansions in the EITC program created by these supplements are an effective means of providing work incentives. In particular, do states and local counties with an EITC supplement witness higher female labor force participation rates? Exploiting variation in the policy over time both across states and within states between different demographic groups, I analyze whether the EITC supplements have raised labor supply among single women, and whether such differences exist in the labor supply of married women.

A PERCEPTIONAL STUDY ON THE TYPE OF WORK WOMEN UNDERTAKE IN TOP POSITION IN SELECTED SERVICE SECTOR WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO PUNE

India has one of the lowest female labor force participation rates in the world and a majority of women work in the informal sector. The World Economic Forum said that at the it will take India 108 years to close the overall gender gap and 202 years to bring equality in the workplace. Even though there are more women graduates, the number of those joining the corporate sector and rising to the top remains abysmally low. (Thakur, 2020). In the recent study by Credit Suisse Research Institute (CSRI)India Ranked 23 globally, India’s female representation on boards has increased by 4.3 percentage points over the past five years to 15.2% in 2019.Though female participation rate increased but it is significantly below the global average of 20.6% (Pathak ,2019). India is near the bottom of the rankings for female representation at senior management levels, only marginally better than Japan and South Korea. Accepting the fact that female participation is top position is very less in India from the above figures this paper aims to examine the women in the top position as well as threw a light on area or type of work in which women are engaged in select service sector in Pune city

Structural transformation and inequality: The case of South Korea

This paper examines the relationship between structural transformation and inequality in South Korea from 1963 to 1990. We quantify the impact of structural change, age structure, employment and wage structure, and the distribution of farmland on income inequality. We find that the relatively equal initial distribution of farmland due to an extensive redistributive land reform undertaken in the 1950s significantly constrained subsequent income inequality. Structural change through the reallocation of labor out of agriculture contributed to rising income inequality. By contrast, a greater female labor force participation rate in non-agriculture, and a lower share of the working-age population reduced household income inequality.

Jointly Modeling Male and Female Labor Participation and Unemployment

The COVID-19 pandemic resulted in the most abrupt changes in U.S. labor force participation and unemployment since the Second World War, with different consequences for men and women. This paper models the U.S. labor market to help to interpret the pandemic’s effects. After replicating and extending Emerson’s (2011) model of the labor market, we formulate a joint model of male and female unemployment and labor force participation rates for 1980–2019 and use it to forecast into the pandemic to understand the pandemic’s labor market consequences. Gender-specific differences were particularly large at the pandemic’s outset; lower labor force participation persists.

Role of the ICT in Women Empowerment and Achieving SDGs: A Case Study of Women Labor Force in Developing Countries

The aim of the study is to analyze the ways women are empowered through information and communication technology (ICT) and fostering the process of achieving the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Women in developing countries are facing economic and social hardships and have limited access to ICT, which in turn translate into their lack of skills, lower literacy rate and restricted social engagement. Therefore, present study explores the role of ICT on women empowerment in 51 developing countries by conducting panel data modeling over the period of 2000-17. The study finds that ICT has significant and positive contribution on female labor force participation rate by Generalized Method of Moment (GMM). Control variables like GDP growth and government expenditure on education have positive and statistically significant role to enhance women empowerment. Findings of the study imply that the ICT has an impact on women empowerment and which helps in fostering the process of achieving SDGs 2030.

Female Labour Force Participation: What Prevents Sustainable Development Goals from Being Realised in Iran?

Elimination of the gender gap in labour force participation has become one of the main challenges of achieving the U.N.’s Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) in the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. The rapid increase in university education and decrease in fertility rate in Iran over the past decades might affect the achievement of the SDGs. However, the country’s female labour force participation (FLFP) rate stagnates at a superficial level. The stagnating FLFP rate is inconsistent with basic labour economics supply-side explanations while drawing attention to demand-side explanations, namely, female labour demand constraints, such as occupational segregation and labour market discrimination. This study empirically investigates the effect on FLFP of primary labour supply factors along with household conditions and gender norms and attitudes for 2 specific years: 2008 and 2018. The aim is to shed light on the causes of stagnation at the FLFP level by using the Household Expenditure and Income Survey conducted annually by the Statistical Center of Iran. The empirical findings suggest gender norms and attitudes towards working women and gendered division of work associated with family care as the driving forces of stagnation in FLFP in Iran.

Fertility and Female Labor Force Participation in Asian Countries; Panel ARDL Approach

Fertility has a close relationship with female labor force participation and is predicted to be the prominent factor affecting female labor force participation in rich and emerging countries. The decline in fertility worldwide, accompanied by increased female education, is assumed to increase female labor force participation. The increase in the female labor force participation rate can improve economic incentives for the country. Therefore, this study estimates the effect of fertility and female education on female labor force participation in cross-country panel datasets from 39 Asian countries, using panel ARDL analysis from 1990-2018. This study also examines the panel causality between the variables employing Dumitrescu and Hurlin’s (2012) Granger non-causality test. According to the Hausman test, among the three models in panel ARDL, DFE is the preferred model compared to the PMG and MG. The results revealed that fertility was negatively significant on female labor participation in the short run but not in the long run. In contrast, female education was positively significant on female labor participation in the long run but not in the short run. Meanwhile, the panel causality showed a bidirectional relationship between female labor participation and fertility, female labor participation and education, and fertility and female education.

Determinants of Labour Force Participation Rate in Malaysia from Gender Perspective

Labour force participation rate (LFPR) is always a concern in economic view in Malaysia. This research study on how the labour force factors will affect the LFPR according to gender perspective for every state in Malaysia from the year 2011 to 2016. Static Panel Data analysis were used in this study. By using Fixed effect model (FEM), outside labour force, non-married, secondary, and tertiary education level have inverse relationship with male LFPR, while the marital status of labour force has positive relationship with male LFPR. Next, for the effect of determinants and characteristics of labour force on female LFPR, Random effect model (REM) was used. The model shows that unemployed, widowed status, outside labour force, and marital status have an inverse relationship with female LFPR. Meanwhile, non-formal education level, tertiary education level, and age group between 40-64 have positive relationship with female LFPR. In conclusion, it is important to understand the LFPR according to gender in Malaysia because it will shape the comparative advantage and describes the situation of Malaysia’s labour market. This study provides an overview of labour force in Malaysia using an appropriate statistical modelling known as panel data approach.

Does the Internet Reduce Gender Gaps? The Case of Jordan

This article investigates the link between digital technologies and female labour outcomes in a country with one of the lowest female labour force participation (LFP) rates. It exploits the massive roll-out of mobile broadband technology in Jordan between 2010 and 2016 to identify the effect of internet adoption on LFP, internet job search, employment and unemployment. Using panel data at the individual level and an instrumental variable strategy, the article finds that internet adoption increases female LFP and that the effect is driven by women who were not married in 2010, who also experience declines in marriage and fertility rates in response to internet adoption. An increase in online job search explains some – but not all – of the total increase in female LFP. Only women who are older and have higher levels of education experience an increase in employment in response to gaining internet access. The internet reduces the prevalence of traditional social norms among married women, but this channel does not explain the increase in female LFP.

Socio-economic and demographic determinants of fertility in six selected Pacific Island Countries: An empirical study.

In this study, we seek to perform macro analysis of fertility in a panel of 6 selected Pacific Island Countries (PICs, hereafter). The macro analysis with secondary data, mostly obtained from World Bank database, stretched over the period 1990-2019 was stacked randomly in a balanced panel set-up, within which the most preferred fixed effect model is used for multivariate analysis. Pooled OLS and Random effect estimation techniques were applied for comparing results. Categories such as women's empowerment, health, connectivity and cost of living were used to classify proxy variables as regressors for fertility determination. The results indicate variables such as contraceptive prevalence rate, female labour force participation rate and consumer price index (inflation) are negatively correlated with fertility at 1% level, while urbanisation is negatively correlated with fertility rate only at 10% significance level. Real GDP has negative relationship with fertility, however it is not statistically significant. Variables that are positively correlated with fertility but hold limited to no significance effects are female secondary enrolment, female population, mobile subscription and infant mortality rate. It is implied that those variables that are negatively associated with fertility, as well as Real GDP will be the major drivers for achieving replacement level fertility in the long run.

Labor market in the UK in digital era: The gender dimension

The article considers gender discrimination in the field of labor relations in the United Kingdom (UK) in the pre-covid period. In the past decades, the Western European countries have made the most significant progress in achieving gender equality in various fields, including labor relations, and became the world leader in this area. However, despite all the efforts of the international community, no country has achieved a full gender equality, and Great Britain is no exception. The authors argue that the British anti-discrimination legislation (before leaving the European Union) was based on international acts and conventions. For a long time, there were acts and laws prohibiting discrimination in the labor market, which seriously hindered the implementation of an effective anti-discrimination policy in the sphere of labor relations. It was not until 2010 that the law on equality was passed to replace all previous laws and regulations and to provide an exhaustive list of criteria for prohibiting discrimination. As a result, Great Britain began to develop a rather strict national anti-discrimination legislation in the field of labor relations. Thus, in the past decades, the UK has been achieving gender equality in the economic sphere at a faster pace than the average European Union country. The study shows a steady decline in the gender wage gap in the UK over the past two decades, which may be considered one of the countrys most significant achievements in fighting gender discrimination in the labor market. However, there is still a number of serious challenges: a relatively low female labor force participation and employment rate, a gender wage gap and income gap, horizontal and vertical segregation, a gender gap in postgraduate education, and a significant gender gap in time spent on family responsibilities. Age discrimination presents a special problem in the sphere of labor relations in Great Britain. In the European Union, the first laws prohibiting age discrimination were adopted only in the 2000s, and in the UK - in 2006. This problem still remains extremely acute for the labor market, since age discrimination in the UK ranks third among the most common grounds for discrimination - after gender and disability.

Migration and intergenerational stability in female employment: The impact of differences between sending and receiving countries

Objective: This article studies the intergenerational stability of employment in families of immigrants cross-nationally by investigating to what extent contextual differences between sending and receiving countries affect the transmission of labour force participation from mothers to daughters.
 Background: It is often argued that a low level of labour force participation among female immigrants reflects gender norms inherited from the sending country, or, alternatively, that it is indicative of obstacles to social mobility in the receiving country. We seek to add to the existing research on this topic by providing evidence of differences between sending and receiving countries that systematically affect the labour market behaviour of female immigrants.
 Method: We use individual-level data from the European Social Survey (ESS) for 35 receiving countries for a 14-year period (2004-2018) in combination with contextual data for 172 sending countries from 1960 to 2018. First, we provide an overview of employment rates and intergenerational employment stability for different combinations of sending and receiving contexts with respect to the labour force participation rates of female immigrants. Second, we corroborate our descriptive findings with multilevel models.
 Results: Our paper shows that there are changes in the levels of intergenerational employment stability among immigrants depending on the differences in the female labour force participation rates between the sending and the receiving countries. We find that when women migrate from countries with low female labour force participation rates to countries with high female labour force participation rates, their probability of participating in the labour force increases. However, we also find that the levels of intergenerational employment stability in this group are high.
 Conclusion: Intergenerational employment stability seems to be responsive to contextual differences between sending and receiving countries. We observe the highest levels of intergenerational stability in employment between mothers and daughters in families who migrated from countries with low female labour force participation rates to countries with high female labour force participation rates.

Strategy for Abolishing Barriers to Women Participation in Labor Force

<p>The female labor force participation rate has not moved from 50-55% in the last ten years, and this condition has been exacerbated by the covid-19 pandemic. This study looks at the various challenges for women in entering the world of work, maintaining jobs and building careers, and what strategies stakeholders can take to remove various barriers to women's labor force participation. The strategic recommendations include affirmative actions and policies that could be taken by policy makers and companies to remove barriers to women's participation in the workforce. The study is based on literature reviews of various studies and surveys conducted by the ILO in 2010-2020, especially regarding women in the world of work.</p>