Feedstock For Biodiesel Production Research Articles

Nutrient and salinity stress induced biodiesel production from a green alga, Monoraphidium neglectum

The potential of a green alga as a versatile and sustainable feedstock for biodiesel production was assessed. Molecular identification revealed the alga to be Monoraphidium neglectum. Under diverse growth conditions, including nutrient deficiency and salinity stress, the microalga showed robust adaptability. Under nitrate deficiency (N-, the lipid content peaked (30.67 %), with a notable increase in monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA), reaching 50.72 % in the stressed sample. Additionally, the highest polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) content (24.55 %) was observed at a salinity level of 0.12 M. At 0.01 M salinity, the highest total carbohydrate content was observed. A significant fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) yield of 85.08 % was obtained under nitrate deficiency (N-) emphasizing its biodiesel production potential. The as-obtained biodiesel exhibited low viscosity, superior low-temperature performance and enhanced oxidation stability rendering the alga as an ideal candidate for eco-friendly, sustainable biodiesel production.

Biodiesel production and exploring properties of Datura stramonium L. oil with its optimization using combined approaches-Taguchi, grey relational analysis, and response surface methodology.

Biodiesel production through the synthesis of Datura stramonium L. oil is studied to explore the most efficient approaches to suggest an alternate feedstock for biodiesel production. The main objective of this work is to optimize the process variables of biodiesel synthesis by using some statistical approach (Taguchi method, grey relational analysis (GRA), and response surface methodology (RSM) analyzing three parameters, i.e., alcohol-to-oil molar ratio, catalyst (NaOH) concentration, and process temperature for achieving maximum biodiesel derived from Datura stramonium L. oil. The transesterification process is applied by using an ultrasonic-assisted technique. Grey relational analysis (GRA) was successfully applied with the Taguchi method resulting in the optimum combination of A2B1C1. Based on the findings, the best operating conditions for transesterifying are attained with the RSM approach consisting of a 5.697:1 molar ratio (level 2), 0.3 (wt.%) NaOH concentration (level 1), and 70 °C process temperature (level 1). With a value of 87.02%, these ideal operating conditions produce the maximum yield as compared to grey relational analysis (GRA) yields 83.99%. The obtained results have been verified through the characterization of oil and biodiesel as well. Also, the fuel qualities of DSL biodiesel were identified and assessed. DSL oil was found 137.6 degrees of unsaturation during fatty acid profile analysis. DSL biodiesel was found the best kinematic viscosity (4.2 mm2/s) and acid value (0.49) when compared to Karanja and palm biodiesel. D. stramonium L. was recognized as a suitable species for biodiesel feedstock according to the findings.

Development of South Africa Macadamia Nuts and its Utilization for Biodiesel Production

Demands for energy are rising as the world's population expands. To meet these demands, fossil fuels have been overused, yet this over reliance on them has led to their depletion. The usage of fossil fuels has also significantly contributed to the release of greenhouse gases, which is a serious environmental concern. Sustainable energy is therefore environmentally friendly and financially sound. Petro-diesel can be replaced by biodiesel because it is biodegradable and less hazardous. Biofuel is any fuel produced from biomass, which can be either animal fats or waste, plant or algae material as a feedstock. Biomass benefits in producing fuels which helps to lessen the demand for petroleum fuel and products. Petroleum fuel and gas increase the greenhouse gas emissions profile of the transportation sector. The Republic of South Africa (RSA) is the 14th world's largest emitter of greenhouse gases. This is due to the emissions resulting from burning and heavy reliance on coal. Since biofuel can be produced domestically from natural sources like soybeans, rapeseed, macadamia nuts, coconuts, and even leftover cooking, it has the potential to serve as a remarkable substitute for the commonly used petroleum-derived diesel fuel. This study addresses the historical development of macadamia nuts with a focus on the South African Macadamia Nuts (SAMN) industry, its origin, and as a feedstock for biodiesel production. The generation and classification of biodiesel, physicochemical properties, biodiesel standards, and both American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM), European Committee for Standardization (EN 14214), and South African biodiesel framework standards are discussed. Furthermore, the biodiesel blending requirements, techniques, and benefits were outlined. Finally, the biodiesel regulatory framework of SA and biodiesel framework as per the Biodiesel Task team (BTT) was examined.

Biodiesel Synthesis from the Waste Biomass

In this work, physicochemical properties of the waste used oil (WUO) were carried out for its aptness for biodiesel production. Burnt Animal Bone was used as a precursor for the biodiesel production. The produced biodiesel was characterized and the optimum biodiesel produced was determined via statistical analysis. This was with a view to add value to WUO and finding environmentally friendly alternative to fossil fuel. WUO was obtained from eatery in Yenegoa, Bayelsa State, Nigeria. The foreign materials and dirt in the oil was removed by filtration after preheating. The physiochemical and other parameters (cetane number, API, aniline point among others) properties of WUO were determined using standard methods. The BAB was burnt to ash in a furnace, sieved into fine powder, and then characterized using FTIR, SEM, XRF, BET adsorption, and qualitative analysis. Biodiesel production was done via base catalyst transesterification while statistical analysis was done using Microsoft Excel 8.0. In order to ascertain the quality of the biodiesel, the physicochemical properties were determined. Results showed that the refined WUO properties were in line with oil property requirement for biodiesel production. The physicochemical characteristics of the WUO showed physical state of the oil to be liquid/dark brownish at 28 oC, viscosity 6.58 cP at 28 oC, acid value, 0.96 (mg KOH/g oil), FFA (% oleic acid), 0.48, iodine value, 152.00 (g I2/100g oil), peroxide value, 5.1 milli-equivalent of peroxide/kg of oil among others. The derived catalyst showed high basic strength with Calcium oxide (87.63 wt. %) as the dominant element in the catalyst. Optimum biodiesel yield was obtained at run 5 with 98.52 (%wt. /wt.) at reaction time of 30 min, catalyst amount of 2.0 (%wt.), reaction temperature of 100 oC, and ethanol-oil molar ratio of 4:1. The produced biodiesel properties conformed to the recommended standard ASTM D6751 and EN 14214. The study concluded that WUO could serve as feedstock for biodiesel production that is environmentally friendly and the derived catalyst could be used as a bio-base in Industries.

Total Lipid Content and Fatty Acid Composition of Two Morphologically Distinct Chlorella spp. for Biodiesel Production

This study investigated the potential of two morphologically distinct Chlorella spp. to assess the total lipid content and fatty acid composition targeting biodiesel production. Due to their rapid growth, less space requirement, and zero-conflict with current food demand, green microalgae-led biodiesel production has gained a key attention as an alternative, sustainable and eco-friendly substitute for fossil fuels diminishing the increased demand for fossil fuels, fuel prices and excessive release of greenhouse gases to the atmosphere. The Chlorella spp. were isolated from Beire Lake, Colombo (Wet Zone) and Kiriibban Lake, Monaragala (Dry Zone) of Sri Lanka. They were named as BCS1 and RCS2, respectively. Semi-mass culturing of Chlorella spp. in BG-11 medium (pH=7.5-8.5) was carried out in a greenhouse providing aeration and a 12:12 light: dark photoperiod. After 4 weeks, Chlorella spp. were harvested using aluminium sulphate, employing flocculation method. Harvested biomass was oven-dried and made into a fine powder for analysis. The total lipid content (TLC) of Chlorella spp. was determined using n-hexane as the extraction solvent in a soxhlet extractor maintaining three replicates for each. Extracted lipids were dried in a rotary evaporator and TLC was calculated gravimetrically. The total lipid content of BCS1 and RCS2 was recorded as 15.67% and 18.33%, respectively. After quantification, lipids were resuspended and concentrated in 1 mL of n-hexane to convert into fatty acid methyl esters (FAMEs)/ biodiesel via a transesterification reaction. The trans-esterified lipids (FAMEs) were analysed via Gas Chromatography. The most dominant FAMEs of BCS1 were palmitic acid (C16:0), oleic acid [C18:1 cis (n9)], stearic acid (C18:0), lignoceric acid (C24:0), lauric acid (C12:0) and myristic acid (C14:0). The most dominant FAMEs of RCS2 were cis-10-pentadecenoic acid (C15:1), elaidic acid [C18:1 trans (n9)], linolelaidic acid [C18:2 trans (n6)], cis-11-eicosenoic acid [C20:1 (n9)], lignoceric acid (C24:0) and oleic acid [C18:1 cis (n9)]. A well-balanced saturated and unsaturated FAME composition is essential for the optimal biodiesel quality, herein it was found in BCS1 with 41.62% of palmitic acid and 33.38% of oleic acid. Higher percentage of oleic acid exhibits a combination of oxidative stability and low temperature properties determining the suitability of BCS1 as a biodiesel feedstock compared to RCS2. In conclusion, even though RCS2 has a higher total lipid content, BCS1 exhibits more favourable characteristics in its FAME composition as a promising feedstock for biodiesel production.
 
 Keywords: Green microalgae, Chlorella spp., Total lipid content, Lipid composition, Biodiesel

Evaluation of fuel properties for possible biodiesel output based on the fatty acid composition of oleaginous plants and microalgae

In the past decade, there has been a significant rise in sustainable biomass based biofuel production to address energy needs while mitigating environmental impacts. Traditionally, bioethanol was used for biofuel production, but concerns over food security and environmental preservation have led to growing interest in alternative sources such as neutral lipids from vegetable oil and microalgae for biodiesel production. This research paper evaluates the potential of various oleaginous plants and microalgae as feedstocks for biodiesel production, with a focus on their fatty acid composition and its impact on biodiesel properties. The study examines the fatty acid profiles of 43 different plant and microalgae species and employs various equations to estimate key physical properties of biodiesel. Additionally, the communication compares these properties to International Biodiesel Standards (EN 14214 and ASTM D6751–08) to assess the suitability of the derived biodiesel for commercial use. It is impossible to describe a single composition that is optimal in terms of all essential fuel properties due to the opposing effects of some structural features of the Fatty Acid Methyl Esters (FAME). However, biodiesel should contain relatively low concentrations of both long chain saturated and polyunsaturated FAME to ensure adequate efficiency in terms of low temperature operability and oxidative stability. The results reveal significant variations in properties amongst different feedstocks, highlighting the importance of feedstock selection in biodiesel production. The study also establishes correlations between various fuel properties, providing valuable insights in to optimizing biodiesel production processes, which will be of great use to researchers, engineers, and stakeholders involved in biodiesel production.

Performance analysis and emission characteristics of VCR diesel engine using palm stearin oil biodiesel as fuel

Abstract The increasing depletion of fossil fuels has prompted international efforts to search for diesel substitutes. One way to considerably reduce fuel shortages would be to use bio-derived fuels as replacements. Transesterification of edible or nonedible vegetable oils yields biodiesel, which is one example of a bio-origin fuel and a workable solution. Biodiesel’s characteristics are often more advantageous than those of diesel. One well-known example of a nonedible vegetable oil is palm stearin. In this work, we investigate the potential use of transesterified palm stearin methyl esters (PSME) as a substitute fuel. A rated compression ratio (CR) of 17.5 and 210 bar of fuel injection pressure were employed in the experimental investigations, which were carried out at a constant speed of 1500 rpm. Our main goals were to reduce emissions and improve engine performance. The evaluation parameters encompassed brake thermal efficiency (BTE), brake-specific fuel consumption (BSFC), and emission indices. It was observed that using PSME led to better performance and fewer emissions when compared to using conventional diesel, especially when the CR was 17.5. Increased BTE, decreased BSFC, lower air–fuel ratios, and decreased volumetric efficiencies were all correlated with higher CR. As a byproduct of palm oil, PSME shows promise as a seasonally and geographically specific feedstock for biodiesel production, providing benefits over conventional diesel fuels in terms of performance and the environment.

The analysis of classical, polynomial regression and cubic spline mathematical models in hemp biodiesel optimization: an experimental comparison

Post-pandemic inflationist pressures, climate changes and extremes, regional conflicts, and soaring food prices caused the food crisis to increase rapidly worldwide. This global problem directs producers and researchers to use oils used as feedstock in biodiesel production effectively. In this context, it is important to assay the transesterification parameters and conduct new optimization studies to increase biodiesel yield. In this study, methyl ester was produced from hemp oil by transesterification using sodium hydroxide (NaOH). Next, classical optimization study was carried out to determine the effects of catalyst amount, alcohol:oil molar ratio, reaction temperature, and reaction time variables on biodiesel yield. Secondly, the cubic spline mathematical model (CSMM) and polynomial regression mathematical model (PRMM) were applied to the first data of this optimization. Among these optimization methods, the utmost biodiesel yield registered was 96.115% at hemp seed oil (HSO):methanol molar ratio of 5.59:1, catalyst concentration of 0.531 wt%, reaction temperature of 42.5 °C, reaction time of 62.1 min, and agitation intensity of 600 rpm at PRMM. Some vital fuel properties obtained from HSO biodiesels as a result of three optimizations satisfied the EN 14214 standard. The results illustrated that the optimal yields from CSMM and PRMM are 0.765% and 1.065% higher, respectively, according to the maximum efficiency obtained from the classical optimization. The outcomes showed that CSMM and PRMM are cost-effective, easy to handle, and promising new approaches.

Assessment of Ailanthus altissima seed oil as a potential source for biodiesel production using nickel oxide nanoparticles catalyst

The identification of suitable non-edible plant feedstock is crucial not only to meet energy demands but also to be environmentally friendly. This study aimed to synthesize nickel oxide (NiO) nanoparticles and use these for synthesizing biodiesel from the non-edible feedstock Ailanthus altissima. The confirmation of NiO synthesis and its characteristics were studied using XRD and SEM. The biodiesel synthesis and its physicochemical characteristics were confirmed using GC–MS, NMR, and FT-IR spectroscopies. The fuel characteristics were examined using ASTM standard procedures. The results confirmed that the nanoparticles were crystalline, spherical to cuboidal in shape, and had an average diameter of 24 nm. The suitable set of parameters for the optimum biodiesel yield (95 %) was the oil-to-methanol ratio of 1:24, 25 mg of catalyst, 60 °C temperature, and a reaction time of 90 min. The majority of the fuel's characteristics fell within ASTM D-6751 acceptable ranges. 14 distinct kinds of FAMEs are present, according to the GC–MS results. The FT-IR spectra confirmed the successful synthesis of biodiesel, which displayed significant peaks for several functional groups. 1H NMR and 13C NMR spectrums confirm the conversion of biodiesel synthesis. The environmental friendliness of AAB (Ailanthus altissima biodiesel) and its competitiveness as a feedstock for biodiesel production on a commercial scale are confirmed by its physicochemical properties.

A Comprehensive Review on Deep Learning Applications in Advancing Biodiesel Feedstock Selection and Production Processes

A Comprehensive Review on Deep Learning Applications in Advancing Biodiesel Feedstock Selection and Production Processes

Asimina triloba seeds as a feedstock for energy conversion: Optimizing yield rate and characterizing fuel properties

In the present study, waste Asimina triloba seeds are proposed as a potential feedstock for biodiesel production, with the optimization of transesterification process parameters aimed at achieving higher yield rates. While previous studies have explored the use of Asimina triloba biodiesel for engine applications, this study stands out as the first to optimize transesterification process parameters for increased yield and to conduct comprehensive fuel characterization alongside storage stability analysis. The transesterification process parameters such as the methanol-oil molar ratio, catalyst volume concentration, reaction process temperature, and reaction process time are optimized by employing the response surface methodology. The response surface methodology analysis revealed that the proposed model is highly significant, with a coefficient of determination approaching unity. To achieve maximum biodiesel yield, the recommended parameters are a methanol-oil molar ratio of 14.7:1, a catalyst concentration of 2.4%, a reaction temperature of 81.3?C, and a reaction time of 138.8 minutes. Under these optimal conditions, the projected yield is 94.35%, aligning closely with experimental observations of 94.4%. The Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy analysis underscored the substantial presence of carbon-based constituents in biodiesel, while the gas chromatography-mass spectrometry analysis revealed octadic-9,12-dienoic acid as the primary contributor. Furthermore, the stability profile demonstrates an extended stability period, complemented by physicochemical properties that align with the biodiesel standards specified by ASTM.

Biodiesel production from hempseed (Cannabis sativa L.) oil: Providing optimum conditions by response surface methodology

This study focuses on the optimization of biodiesel synthesis using non-edible hempseed oil as the feedstock. The response surface method was used to find the best methanol: oil molar ratio, catalyst concentration, reaction temperature, and reaction duration for the transesterification process. The center composite design experimental design was used to make the design. A total of 30 cycles were conducted to adjust the four parameters at five different levels in order to optimize the biodiesel production process. It was found that the best conditions for transesterification of hempseed oil were a KOH catalyst concentration of 0.80 wt.%, a molar ratio of 7.41:1, a reaction time of 62.83 min, and a reaction temperature of 61.92 °C. Under these optimized reaction conditions, the predicted biodiesel yield was 95.57%, while the experimental yield was 95.24%. The biodiesel produced using the optimized parameters was analyzed for its properties, and the findings demonstrated that it met the requirements of EN 14214, a standard for biodiesel quality. The optimization of the biodiesel synthesis process using non-edible hempseed oil contributes to the exploration of alternative and sustainable feedstocks for biodiesel production. The values of the produced biodiesel within the standard range demonstrate its suitability for commercial applications and strengthen the potential of hemp seed oil as a suitable raw material for biodiesel production.

Biodiesel from blended microalgae and waste cooking oils: Optimization, characterization, and fuel quality studies

<abstract> <p>Petrodiesel is an unsustainable and undependable fuel owing to its environmental concerns and depleting reserves. Biodiesel is a sustainable alternative fuel to petrodiesel with a better fuel quality and minimum environmental impacts. However, cost-effective biodiesel production requires the use of a sustainable feedstock and process optimization. This study explored biodiesel yield optimization from mixed microalgae oil (MO) and waste cooking oil (WCO). The use of mixed feedstock for biodiesel production relieves the rising demands; lowers feedstock costs; and improves the fuel quality, engine performance, and pollutants emission characteristics. MO was extracted from dried microalgae biomass by the Soxhlet method using hexane. The MO and WCO were purified and characterized, and an oil blend with suitable properties (best in kinematic viscosity, density, higher heating value, and acid value compared to other blends) was selected. The transesterification experiments designed by central composite design were optimized using the response surface methodology. Experimental results underwent regression analysis to develop a quadratic model equation for predicting the optimum level of parameters and biodiesel yield. Model fitness and variables effects on biodiesel yield were studied using analysis of variance. The optimization experiment achieved 98.82% oil conversion rate at the catalyst loading of 2.0 w/v%, molar ratio of 12:1 v/v, reaction temperature of 60 ℃, and reaction time of 100 min. A triplicate validation experiments achieved 97.72% conversion rate, which is very close to the model predicted result (99.1%). Biodiesel from MO-WCO showed a better cetane number (77.76), iodine value (12.90 gI<sub>2</sub>/100 g), acid value (0.049 mg KOH/g), HHV (43.25 MJ/kg), kinematic viscosity (4.50 mm<sup>2</sup>/s), pour point (–2.5 ℃), and flash point (180 ℃). In conclusion, the study revealed that transesterification of blended MO-WCO led to a maximum biodiesel and the reaction time and temperature were found to be the most significant factors affecting the yield of biodiesel. Furthermore, biodiesel from blended MO-WCO is a sustainable and environmentally friendly alternative fuel source which can contribute towards a promising industrial scale biodiesel production in the future.</p> </abstract>

Recycled waste groundnut oil: A potential feedstock for green energy/biodiesel synthesis

This work focuses on the recycling of waste groundnut oil as a potential feedstock for biodiesel production using activated coconut husk as a regenerating agent. The coconut husk was functionalized using organic acid. The properties of the functionalized coconut husk were investigated via instrumental analysis. Non-parametric modeling involving 2-degree isotherm models were used. The regeneration/recycling of the waste oil were done in batch mode examining key factors of temperature, time, concentration and dosage. Biodiesel was synthesized from recycled waste groundnut oil using transesterification reaction. The properties of biodiesel were examined using ASTM and AOAC official standards. Brunauer-Emmett-Teller surface analysis revealed the surface area of the adsorbent as 371.88 m2/g and a porosity distribution of 0.567 η on the surface at a pH of 6.1. Batch mode analysis revealed that 97.5% of impurities was removed from waste groundnut oil under one batch process at 80 °C after 4 h with 6 g of the activated coconut husk. Langmuir isotherm model provided the best fit to the experimental data with adsorption capacity of 33.5 mg/g at R2 of 0.996. Adsorption of waste groundnut oil impurities onto activated coconut husk was endothermic, as evidenced by the calculated ΔH of +2.7914 kJ/mol. A high cetane number of 48.4 obtained after transesterification is an indication of the good ignition quality of the obtained recycled waste groundnut oil methyl ester. Kinematic viscosity and acid value were revealed to be 4.65 mm2 S−1 and 0.31 mg KOH/g, while the calorific value stood at 38,053 kJ/kg. GC-MS analysis revealed a complex mixture of fatty acid methyl esters dominated by unsaturated fatty acids (58.78%). Recycling of waste cooking oil in this work using activated coconut husk demonstrated good quality as a regenerating agent. The properties of biodiesel obtained showed that it has all the good qualities comparable to other existing biodiesel based on the ASTM and AOAC official standards. More work on the recycling of other waste cooking oils for green energy synthesis to protect our environment from pollution emanating from the use of conventional petro-diesel and promote energy transition is highly recommended.

Effectiveness of <i>Jatropha curcas</i> as Biodiesel and Antiviral: A Review

Jatropha curcas has emerged as a potential feedstock for biodiesel production due to its non-edible nature, high oil content, and adaptability to marginal lands. This review provides an overview of the advantages and challenges associated with Jatropha curcas as a biodiesel source. The non-edible nature of Jatropha curcas makes it an attractive option for biofuel production, as it does not compete with food crops, minimizing concerns about food security. The seeds of Jatropha curcas contain a significant amount of oil, ranging from 30% to 40%, making it a suitable feedstock for biodiesel production. Jatropha curcas exhibits adaptability to harsh environments and can grow on marginal lands unsuitable for food crops. It requires low water and nutrient inputs, making it a potential solution for areas where other crops struggle to thrive. Furthermore, the cultivation of Jatropha curcas can provide economic opportunities, especially in rural areas, contributing to rural development and income generation for farmers. However, there are challenges that need to be addressed for the successful commercialization of Jatropha curcas as a biodiesel feedstock.

Process design, kinetics, simulation, and techno-economic analysis of biodiesel production from Pongamia pinnata seed oil using a magnetically recyclable acidic ionic liquid catalyst

A magnetically recyclable polymeric acidic ionic liquid nanocatalyst was fabricated in response to the demand for economical and eco-friendly one-pot conversion of inexpensive oils to biodiesel. To achieve this, Fe3O4–SiO2 nanocomposites with Fe3O4 as the core and SiO2 as the shell were prepared, and polymeric acidic ionic liquid (PAIL) was grafted over the core–shell nanocomposite (Fe3O4-SiO2) to produce Fe3O4–SiO2–PAIL nanocatalyst. The characterization results demonstrated that Fe3O4–SiO2–PAIL nanocatalyst had a strong saturation magnetization of 19.16 emu/g, a large surface area of 13.067 m2/g, and a high acid loading of 6.1 mmol/g. The Fe3O4–SiO2–PAIL was used as a heterogeneous catalyst to transesterify Pongamia pinnata seed oil (PPO) into fatty acid methyl esters (FAME). The biodiesel yield was 94.89% under optimized reaction conditions of 6.14 % (w/w) catalyst loading, methanol:oil molar ratio of 12:12, 57.37 °C, and 1.67 h. The produced FAME complied with the ASTM specifications for biodiesel. The transesterification reaction exhibited a low activation energy of 28.298 KJ/mol with pseudo-first-order kinetics. The positive values of ΔH° and ΔG° indicated that the transesterification reaction was endothermic, endergonic, and non-spontaneous. The negative value of ΔS° illustrated that the reaction is less disordered. Furthermore, the reusability studies of the heterogeneous nanocatalyst was investigated. The Fe3O4-SiO2-PAIL nanocatalyst was successfully retrieved swiftly by magnetic force, with no discernible mass loss, and employed at least six additional times without significantly losing its catalytic activity. The techno-economic analysis was executed to investigate the technical and economical feasibility of 15 metric tonne/batch biodiesel production from Pongamia pinnata seed oil using the Fe3O4–SiO2–PAIL nanocatalyst. The economic reports demonstrated a positive NPV of 20,736,000 $/year, a gross margin of 9.41%, and a biodiesel minimum selling price of 0.926 $ with a payback period of 1.88 years. This work paves the way for the sustainable use of P. pinnata as a feedstock for biodiesel production using the Fe3O4–SiO2–PAIL nanocatalyst under specified circumstances.

Optimization of microwave-assisted extraction in the purification of triglycerides from non-edible crude Calophyllum inophyllum oil as biodiesel feedstock using artificial intelligence

Crude nyamplung Calophyllum inophyllum is a potential non-edible feedstock for biodiesel production. Calophyllum Inophyllum oil (CCIO) is a non-edible oil that has a high content of triglyceride (TG) and free fatty acid (FFA). This study aims to optimize microwave-assisted power and extraction time of triglyceride purification from C. inophyllum crude oil for biodiesel. This work deployed Artificial Intelligence (AI) algorithms consisting of eight Machine Learning (ML) algorithms and found the most accurate model, then optimized using the Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) algorithm.The result of machine learning modelling Random Forest achieved higher accuracy in R-Square and lower Mean Square Error (MSE) than any other models. Overall, in R-Square average across all variables was 0.949 ± 0.026 and the MSE average of 0.097 ± 0.068. This result can be interpreted as a mean deviation between the predicted value and an accurate value of less than 0.1 for all variables. The optimum of the TG compound resulted in the power of 462.3 W and time of 39.12 min that equalled at 84.02% and FFA equalled at 6.92%. The TG have increased by 11% from the reference range, which states conventional methods from crude oil. Comparison with the MAE method has a minimum fitness value difference of 0.0006 but has a smaller accuracy of less than 1%. Implementing this prediction and optimization method can shorten the extraction time by 5.8 min and reduce energy consumption or system work by 130 kJ. This method can be used for input parameter model prediction and parameter optimization in purification for biodiesel feedstock. Further research can be carried out using other artificial intelligence methods to optimize biodiesel production.

Valorization of marine fishmeal industry oil as feedstock and calcined shrimp and crab shells as catalysts for production of biodiesels and evaluation of their fuel properties, engine combustion, performance and gas emission characteristics

The current investigation aims on valorization of marine fishmeal industry oil as alternate feedstock for biodiesel production using waste crustacean shell derived catalysts such as calcined shrimp shell (SSBD) at 1:12 oil-to-methanol molar ratio, 5 wt% catalyst dosage, 65 °C temperature, and 120 min reaction time and calcined crab shell (CSBD) at 1:9 oil-to-methanol molar ratio, 3 wt% catalyst concentration, 60 °C temperature and 60 min time, and validate their authenticity for application in diesel engine by evaluating engine performance, combustion, and gas emission characteristics. The SSBD and CSBD yield of 88.74 wt% and 87.47 wt% was obtained at 50 L biodiesel production. The fuel properties of SSBD and CSBD blends (B5, B20, and B50) ensured their application in diesel engine. The brake specific fuel consumption and brake thermal efficiency values for all SSBD and CSBD blends didn’t exhibit major deviation than diesel at 11.93 kW engine load, and ranged from 0.23 to 0.25 kg/kWh and 31.58–36.17%, respectively. Among all blends, the B50 blend of SSBD and CSBD reduced CO, CO2, and HC emissions up to 74.72% and 86.81%, 13.11% and 16.63%, and 35.09% and 58.54%, respectively. Overall, SSBD and CSBD produced using alternate novel feedstock and catalyst could pave way to meet energy demand and sustainable biodiesel production.

Structure and Regeneration Status of Woody Seed Oil Species in Northern Botswana

Abstract Concerns about energy security and environmental risks have sparked interest in edible and non-edible seed oils as potential renewable feedstocks for biodiesel production. A study was conducted to investigate the population structure and regeneration status of woody seed oil species in the districts of Chobe and Ngamiland. The population structure and regeneration condition of woody seed oil species were studied in 20 × 20 m (400 m2) quadrats spaced 50 m apart along a parallel line transect. Data on the identity of all woody species, the number of all live individuals, and the diameter at breast height (DBH) of individuals with DBH > 2 cm of each woody species were collected in each quadrat. The diversity (Hʹ) and evenness (Jʹ) of woody seed oil species were 1.53, 1.42 and 0.71, and 0.85, 0.73 and 0.51 in Parakarungu, Seronga and Shorobe, respectively. Ximenia caffra was the dominant woody seed oil plant in Shorobe and Seronga, and exhibited an inverted J-shaped curve with continuous diameter classes distribution. Trichilia emetica was only found in Parakarungu, where it was the second dominant species and demonstrated excellent recruitment and regeneration. In Shorobe and Seronga, Croton megalobotrys was the second most dominant species. It had low recruitment, which was most likely due to herbivory and predation on seeds and seedlings. The least prevalent species (Sclerocarya birrea, Schinziophyton rautanenii and Guibourtia coleosperma) had no representation in the intermediate diameter-classes, which might be attributed to the selective removal in these diameter-classes. The examination of the population structure of woody seed oil species indicated variations in patterns of diameter-class distribution, indicating differences in the population dynamics of the species across the study areas. The least dominant species experienced hindered recruitment and regeneration due to herbivory and anthropogenic influences.

Biodiesel production: An updated review of evidence

This review paper highlights the production of biodiesel from different plant based feedstocks via the transesterification process. Biodiesel is a renewable, non-toxic, environment-friendly and an economically feasible option to tackle the depleting fossil fuels and its negative environmental impact. Biodiesel in general possess higher kinematic viscosity and density than conventional diesel. However, because of food security concerns, the use of edible oil in biodiesel production is criticized globally. Non-edible plant oils, waste cooking oils, and edible oil industry byproducts are suggested as effective biodiesel feedstocks because nonedible feedstock does not compete with food from human consumption. High-potential second-generation feedstock for biodiesel production uses waist cooking oil, acid oil, and animal tallow. Non edible crops in India as a feedstock for biodiesel production are yellow oleander oil (Cascabela thevetia), Pongamia (Pongamia pinnata), Jatropha curcas, Mahua (Madhuca longifolia), Candlenut (Aleurites moluccanus), Rubber (Hevea brasiliensis), Soapnut (Sapindus mukorossi), Jojoba (Simmondsia chinensis), Tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum), Neem (Azadirachta indica), Karanja (Millettia pinnata), Castor (Ricinus communis), Polanga (Calophyllum inophyllum L), Cotton (Gossypium), Kusum (Carthamus tinctorius), Yellow oleander (Cascabela thevetia), Sea mango (Cerbera odollam), Tung (Vernicia fordii), and Bottle tree (Brachychiton rupestris). Biodiesel is a sustainable liquid bio-energy resource that might be used to replace diesel fuel. Despite having numerous advantages over conventional diesel, the biodiesel industry is still struggling in India because of various reasons and challenges like availability, high feedstock pricing, operational hurdles, and supply-chain management challenges.