Family Livelihood Research Articles

How Fair Is Fair-Trade: How Much Do Coffee Buyers Know About Grower Food Security & Nutrition? (P04-080-19)

ObjectivesThere is currently no information on what buyers know about nutrition of their fair trade coffee grower’s nutrition and therefore are missing the opportunity to improve the condition of their grower families, many of whom are headed by women. Our objectives are to highlight knowledge and awareness of buyers and consumers; identify best practices to address needs of coffee growers and families to improve nutrition resources; and develop “Nutrition Actions for Coffee Growers” for companies to implement. MethodsReview evidence and secondary data; review U.S. Government programs supporting small-scale farmers and their effectiveness to address grower nutrition; conduct key informant interviews with coffee buyers and companies identified during the Specialty Coffee Expo, April 2019 and Sustainability Consortium TSC10 Conference. Research protocol: Internet-search (pubmed, other sources); synthesize evidence from studies, publications, research; attend Specialty Coffee Expo and Sustainability Consortium TSC10; identify key informants among TSC10, International Women’s Coffee Association (IWCA), coffee buyers and companies focusing on fair trade coffee; develop interview instruments; conduct interviews. ResultsThis abstract is focused on methods and protocol for our research which will be the first of its kind. ConclusionsThis study will provide insight into fair trade purchasers’ understanding and recommend actions companies can take to enable women growers and their families to improve family food security and nutrition. Women provide up to 70% of labor in cultivating and harvesting coffee and 20–35% of coffee-producing households are female headed (International Coffee Organization, ICC 121, 2018). Even when growers get a price premium for fair trade or organic certification, it is not enough to support family livelihoods (Bacon, 2008; Méndez, 2010; Beauchelt, 2012, 2011). Better understanding among fair trade coffee buyers and companies will provide opportunities for growers to ensure better household nutrition. These actions could be scaled to other fair trade products like cocoa, essential oils, artisanal textiles. Funding SourcesGlobal Food & Nutrition Inc. provided funding for the literature review and conference participation.

When cultural political economy meets ‘charismatic carbon’ marketing: A gender-sensitive view on the limitations of Gold Standard cookstove offset projects

Charismatic carbon projects are becoming increasingly popular in the voluntary carbon market. These are carbon offset projects that lend themselves to telling stories about the livelihood benefits they provide for poor people in the Global South in addition to carbon emission savings. I use cultural political economy as a theoretical heuristic to analyse how Gold Standard-certified cookstove carbon offsets are framed as delivering charismatic carbon. Methodologically, this is done through a content analysis of the online visual and textual marketing of 22 Gold Standard-certified cookstove carbon offset projects. I find that the project marketing makes particularly strong claims to improve family livelihoods, income generation and women empowerment, whilst de-politicising the feminist concern with women’s agency. The Gold Standard is one of the major and most well-regarded offsetting standards. Therefore, this research may reveal important limitations in the current and future shape of the wider voluntary carbon market.

Evaluation of SNP Genotyping in Alpacas Using the Bovine HD Genotyping Beadchip.

Alpacas are one of four South American Camelid species living in the highlands of the Andes. Production of alpaca fiber contributes to the economy of the region and the livelihood of many rural families. Fiber quantity and quality are important and in need of a modern breeding program based on genomic selection to accelerate genetic gain. To achieve this is necessary to discover enough molecular markers, single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in particular, to provide genome coverage and facilitate genome wide association studies to fiber production characteristics. The aim of this study was to discover alpaca SNPs by genotyping forty alpaca DNA samples using the BovineHD Genotyping Beadchip. Data analysis was performed with GenomeStudio (Illumina) software. Because different filters and thresholds are reported in the literature we investigated the effects of no-call threshold (≥0.05, ≥0.15, and ≥0.25) and call frequency (≥0.9 and =1.0) in identifying positive SNPs. Average GC Scores, calculated as the average of the 10% and 50% GenCall scores for each SNP (≥0.70) and the GenTrain score ≥ 0.25 parameters were applied to all comparisons. SNPs with minor allele frequency (MAF) ≥ 0.05 or ≥ 0.01 were retained. Since detection of SNPs is based on the stable binding of oligonucleotide probes to the target DNA immediately adjacent to the variant nucleotide, all positive SNP flanking sequences showing perfect alignments between the bovine and alpaca genomes for the first 21 or 26 nucleotides flanking the variant nucleotide at either side were selected. Only SNPs localized in one scaffold were assumed unique. Unique SNPs identified in both reference genomes were kept and mapped on the Vicugna_pacos 2.0.2 genome. The effects of the no-call threshold ≥ 0.25, call frequency = 1 and average GC ≥ 0.7 were meaningful and identified 6756 SNPs of which 400 were unique and polymorphic (MAF ≥ 0.01). Assignment to alpaca chromosomes was possible for 292 SNPs. Likewise, 209 SNPs were localized in 202 alpaca gene loci and 29 of these share the same loci with the dromedary. Interestingly, 69 of 400 alpaca SNPs have 100% similarity with dromedary.

My Journey from a Waiter to a Lecturer: An Autoethnography

This study appraised my momentarily missing twelve years of formal education life (1990-2002) and thoughtful higher education life (2002 to onward). One of the main aims was to ascertain; what are the turning points of my education/working life struggles. In that context, I appraised how I became success to improve my family livelihood by working as a waiter, achieve higher educational status and started my academic career as a lecturer since my engagement with in/formal education. I applied autoethnography as methodology and narrative imagination and writing as inquiry as methods and meditation, self-reflexivity and self-interviewing as major sources of narrative information. While exploring my past, I found, I was ambitious/reflective actor, and rejected the reproduction of my occupational and educational status. I could not become astronaut but I was emotionally committed to perform and produce something unique in my life. Being there, by supporting my family livelihood, I was planning to pledge against stratified socio-economic and cultural structures. I applied vocational rehabilitation therapy and resiliency against my frustration and engaged in working life. My involvement in livelihood not only improved family livelihood but also encouraged me to embark in higher educational voyage. Ultimately, my higher education status and critical thinking ability helped me to transform my life from an anger driven behavior and feelings into happy oriented actions/interactions with self and others. Being here, after becoming a lecturer, I am seeing myself as a new potential organic intellectual as an outcome of my thoughtful education/working life struggles.

An exploration of gender equity in household: A case from a peatland-based community in Riau, Indonesia

Abstract. Herawati T, Rohadi D, Rahmat M, Winarno B. 2019. An exploration of gender equity in household: A case from a peatland-based community in Riau, Indonesia. Biodiversitas 20: 853-861. Gender roles in peatland-based communities’ livelihoods are an important factor in livelihood vulnerability due to challenging characteristics for conducting agriculture in this area. This article reports on a study of gender roles in Riau Province in 7 villages in 3 districts, aiming to identify significant attributes that determining gender equity at the household level. The data was collected through structured interviews in 221 households, in-depth interviews and Focus Group Discussions in every village. The research indicated that gender roles in agricultural activities are significantly dominated by men, while women play a more significant role in domestic activities. Both men and women contribute equally in the social life of the community; women’s participation and group membership is equal to men’s. Poor families tend to have higher gender equity in agricultural activities than rich households. The role of women in wealthier households is not in their physical contribution on the land but is mostly transformed into a decision making role. This indicates that women have a significant role in family livelihoods for both poor and rich families, but in different forms.

ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF SUGARCANE AND SUGAR BEET IN EGYPT

Sugarcane and sugar beet are the sources of sugar in Egypt. Upper Egypt’s economy is heavily dependent on sugarcane production. Disruptions to the area planted with sugarcane would impact the livelihood of many families that live directly on it’s farming, plus a plethora of ancillary business built around sugar production. The study aims to analyze the production, area and yield of sugarcane and sugar beet in Egypt. The study used the regression as a statistical technique that shows the relationship between the independent variable and the dependent variable. The mean of sugarcane production for the time period 1994-2016 was 15532.49 thousand ton while for the sugar beet production was 4987.03 thousand ton. The mean of sugarcane area is 133.54 thousand hectare and for sugar beet area is 99.60 thousand hectare. The results indicated that the area of sugarcane in Egypt is significant at the level of 1%, the regression coefficient of this variable equal 0.944 this result indicates that 1 percent increase in the area of sugarcane resulted in an increase in the sugarcane production by 0.922. The area of sugar beet in Egypt is significant at the level of 1%, the regression coefficient of this variable equal 1.073 this result indicates that 1 percent increase in the area of sugar beet resulted in an increase in the sugar beet production by 1.073. The study recommends improving the technology and procedures of work to produce sugar beet seeds in Egypt; increase the research with the purpose of taking advantage of genetic improvements, which should enable the introduction of new varieties with higher productivity and quality; government policy should encourage and incentive the farmers in different governorates to produce the most efficient crop in their governorates.

Women Food Vendors in the Hills of Manipur: An Empirical Study

Ukhrul a hill district in Manipur State, India was selected for a study of women food vendors. One of the key objectives of the study was to find out the many reasons that drive them into food vending venture and to draw a light upon their everyday struggle. Purposive sampling method was used for the study. The investigator used in-depth interview method with the help of structured interview schedule. The leading factor that came up when looked into the reason that drives them into this business was for them to be able to provide for their family livelihood. Most of the women belonged to a less privilege backgrounds and for them to be able to have a means to make available the needs for their family and be independent financially is a strong hold of empowerment and motivation. Poor educational background and lack of other employment opportunities compel most of these women to look for an occupation like food vending that does not require much start-up capital and requires little or no educational qualification. Major management of their family needs was met by their income. Food variety and availability for their own family consumption significantly magnifies when women enters this venture. The major challenges experience by them in their business was their constant everyday struggle to get profit from their perishable food items before they get spoiled while keeping up with their fellow competitors. Dealing with complains and disapproval of occupation of certain space by permanent shop keepers and local authorities are also their common struggle. They make the food preferred by the people in the region easily available in the street at cheap affordable prices and making the street effortlessly lively as well with their presence. But yet their contribution for the society in which they exist still seems to be invisible or ignored in general with hardly any provision of basic facilities such as vending sheds or toilets, etc. Measures to meet their basic necessities and improving their social security, needs to be urgently addressed by the concerned authorities.

Neoliberal Education Reform as Black Capitalism

28 | BLACK HISTORY BULLETIN VOL. 82, NO 1 82 No.1 NEOLIBERAL EDUCATION REFORM AS BLACK CAPITALISM By Mellissa Gyimah and Ebony Rose Capitalism, historically, has been both a figment of the imagination and within arm’s reach for the Black masses in the United States. But, “Black capitalism” as defined by Manning Marable1 connotes several key components that make it unique to the Black community: 1. The accumulation of capital by individual Black entrepreneurs 2. Strategies designed to maintain control over the Black consumer market in the US 3. Collective programs to improve the economic condition of all Blacks within the overall framework of US capitalism There is a contrasting idea that Marable introduces in his classic text How Capitalism Underdeveloped Black Americathat Black capitalism is a “social myth.”2 Marable argues that Black capitalism was “perpetuated by individual Black entrepreneurial ‘success stories’ and by economic barrier established by the system of segregation.”3 Here we have two ideas of Black participation within the White supremacist, anti-Black, political economy4 —one in which Blacks are under the assumption that US capitalism is not structurally racist and that our progress can be accelerated and therefore alleviated by a small handful of Black elites; and on the other hand, one in which Black capitalism is a “social myth.”5 We take a third position that is dialectical and nuanced, but invites readers to come to their own conclusions or propose other arguments. We argue that Blacks know that the US has historically and continues to fail and neglect their cultural, social, political, educational, and economic needs, but absent a clear and viable alternative to the White supremacist racial state, the status quo is somewhat malleable. An example of this is the current educational reform movement and Black participation in it, not as victims who have suffered the disproportionate impacts of a racial neoliberalism, but as social actors and economic agents, too.6 For us, the education reform movement meets the criteria of Black people’s participation in the political economy by a) trying to accumulate social, cultural, and economic capital,7 b) trying to control and have more input into our children’s education by fighting for charter schools and choice,8 and c) trying to improve both the economic and social well-being of Black people. David Harvey9 explains neoliberalism as a theory of political economic practices, proposing that the well-being of humans can best be advanced by liberating individual entrepreneurial freedoms and skills within an institutional framework characterized by strong private property rights, free markets, and free trade. In this context, neoliberalism is characterized by three traits: the aggressive pursuit of new markets; an effort to scale back or eliminate obstacles to the mobility of capital, including protections for wages; and a reframing of economic stratification and polarization as the effect of individual choices and abilities.10 Neoliberalism presents itself as promoting equality and access across race and class, but this rolled out differently in practice, showing a racialized agenda.11 The complex origins and meanings of charter schools and voucher systems germinate from neoliberal and neoconservative ideology in the 1980s. The voucher and charter systems continue to be extended vis-a-vis a neoliberal agenda at a time when the lives and livelihoods of Black students and families is under a more visible call for Black economic and cultural freedom.12 Therefore, Black people believe that they are reappropriating the neoliberal racialized agenda within the education system, by reconfiguring neoliberal logics of hyper-individualism, color-blindness, free enterprise, privatization of public goods and services, and trade deregulation. Choice, for Black families, becomes the vehicle to provide a better education for their Black children by taking the redistribution of public tax dollars that were disproportionately spent on White children to fund Blackrun schools and neighborhood charter schools, to fit the needs of their families, their communities, and the Black collective.13 BLACK HISTORY BULLETIN VOL. 82, NO. 1 | 29 82 No.1 With all of this in mind, are Black people just being smart and pragmatic by embracing these neoliberal agendas in order to exercise their agency and self-determination? Are they reconfiguring neoliberalism and using it as...

Motivational Factors for Women Employment in Vyas Municipality of Tanahu District, Nepal

This study explains motivational/de-motivational factors for women employment from rural development standpoint. In doing so, quantitative approach and case study research design have been applied. The numeric data are collected from 72 respondents whereas narrative information are generated from five participants selected form five government and five non-government institutions of Vyas Municipality of Tanahu District. In this stance, anonymous self administered questionnaires and key informant interview techniques are applied. The result shows that motivational factors (i.e. salary, bonus, security, safety promotion) are encouraging women to perform their duty/responsibility effectively and efficiently with honorable way. They are not only supporting to their family livelihood but also playing gender role (social, economic & political roles) in community and society. However, some of the respondents are also experiencing less paid salary, sexual harassment, physical difficulties at the time of menstruation and not sufficient maternity leave (de-motivational factors). De-motivated women are failed to join in higher education and unable to perform gender role for rural development. Thus, better to address de-motivational factors by the local development stakeholders including aged persons supporting deeply rooted patriarchal systems of Hindu culture for motivating women for employment.

Land as Home: Women, Life and Violence in Land Conflicts

Abstract This work analyses how women question experiences of violence in land conflicts in Pinhão, Paraná, Southern Brazil. Land conflicts strike at the very foundation of the livelihood of families and communities, having a direct bearing on houses, which are places that objectify the occupation of the land and where ties of belonging between subjects and territories are woven. Land is home; land and violence are therefore also constituted as problems for women and as matters that encompass gender relations. In women’s narratives, violence is appraised through ethical ways of family and community living, and emerges in the following concrete acts: killings, house fires, threats, ambushes, and evictions. These acts intrude on the enduring conviviality of everyday life and the relations that compose communities.

Mobility as a support strategy: Linked lives through the life course among Eastern Europeans in Spain

This article examines the role of mobility in the creation of support strategies of Eastern Europeans (EEs) in Spain. It emphasizes the relational linkages of mobility and shows how strategies of linked-lives are constructed and maintained over the life-course. Drawing on 52 in-depth interviews with EEs (Romanians and Bulgarians) who practice mobility to and from Spain, this article makes two contributions. First, it expands the concept of linked-lives across the life-course in mobility. Second, it highlights mobility as a support strategy to show how EE mobile children, through their movement, assist their parents both in their origin countries and in Spain. I argue that mobility articulates and harmonizes multiple practices of support strategies that link people’s lives in different ways: (a) mobility as a strategy to support parents in old age; (b) mobility as a family livelihood strategy; and (c) mobility as a strategy of gratitude and family reunification. The conclusions highlight the need to integrate mobility as a support strategy into the study of global mobility.

EFFECTS OF MAIZE POLICY REFORM IN NORTHEAST CHINA

National macro-policy is an important factor affecting the adjustment of farmers' livelihood strategies. It is necessary to analyze the impacts of agricultural change on farmers’ income and livelihood strategy adjustment when new policy is issued. The Northeast Chinais a strategic region that guarantees China's national grain security and is also an important pilot area for implementing national agricultural policies. As a breakthrough point in the present agricultural supply-side structural reform implemented by Chinese government, the reform of maize purchasing and storage system in Northeast China has played a significant role in adjusting the maize price and also exerted a significant influence on the income and family livelihood strategies of some farmers. Given the shifts in maize policy, the purpose of this research is to model farmers’ income change and their livelihood strategy adjustment in Northeast China. In consistence with the macro statistical data, the survey results of 125 questionnaires indicate that the reform of maize purchasing and storage system implemented in 2016 led to the drop of maize price in Northeast China by more than 30% in 2017, and the net income of maize growers in most areas of Northeast China declined by more than 60% compared with the previous year. Faced by the sudden drop in the maize price, 24.2% of maize growers in the surveyed farmers planned to adjust their livelihood strategies in a short term. The changes in livelihood strategies are mainly affected by the indicators of “comparison between income and expenditure” and “satisfaction with income from farming”. Finally, this paper puts forward some suggestions from the aspects of supporting subsidies, guidance for adjustment of family livelihood strategies and training of farmers' vocational skills.

Entomophagy for Nutritional Security in India:Potential and Promotion

Entomophagy is practised on a large scale by the tribal communities in North East India compared to eastern and southern states. Termites, honey bees, grasshoppers, stink bugs, aquatic insects and silkworms are common and preferred insect species because they contain high amount of protein, fat, minerals and vitamins. Silkworms are successfully mass-reared on host plants or laboratory diets for commercial production. Generally, insects meant for food recipes are processed before consumption to improve taste, flavour, palatability and nutritional value which make them comparable with animal products. Thus, entomophagy supports nutritional security and family livelihood of tribal communities during difficult periods of the year. This review discusses risks for human health due to consumption of insects and emphasizes conservation of at least major insect species collected from nature. Regular bioprospecting revealed a few new species but needs validation of their consumption through regulatory framework. This initiative would boost not only the sale in local markets but also may open new vista for export. Holistic approach and intensive efforts are needed to promote entomophagy in regions other than the North East.

Midwestern Farm Widows: Adaptation Following Spousal Loss.

The purpose of this descriptive study was to co-create oral histories of Midwestern farm widows. Rural widows constitute a vulnerable population due to issues of bereavement and depression compounded by emotional and geographical isolation. A farm widow is often forced to maintain viability of the farm for the family's livelihood. Oral history interviews with nine Midwest farm widows were conducted and analyzed. Three overarching themes emerged: competence, industriousness, and inner strength. Women shared stories of overcoming insurmountable obstacles. This study contributes to the literature on grief and expanding inner strength among rural widows. Further research could inform theory related to inner strength following a challenging life event.

Role of women’s empowerment in improving farmer’s livelihood: empirical evidence from China

Gender equality and women’s development are the paramount objectives for the sustainable development of the mankind. The influence of women’s rights and status on their family livelihood has been widely discussed in the academia. Based on the field survey questionnaire data from 796 farmers in China’s Three Gorges Reservoir Region, we firstly introduced the psychological capital into the analysis of farmers’ livelihood and constructed a farmers’ livelihood index, then we analyzed the impact of women’s empowerment on the livelihood of farmers by adopting OLS and quantile regression. The results show that: (1) women’s empowerment has a significantly positive effect on the livelihood of the farmer family, (2) their family decision-making power and educational investment can be promoted to narrow the gap between rich and poor among farmers, (3) compared with the elderly female labor force, women’s empowerment has a more significant influence on the livelihood of the family with younger female labor force, and (4) improving farmers’ psychological capital can also make a contribution to their livelihood. Finally, we proposed relevant policy recommendations accordingly based on the findings of this research.

Land Tenure and Water Sources for Urban Vegetable Farmers in Asante-Mampong, Ghana

Objectives: Farmland tenure and water sources are increasingly challenging among urban vegetable farmers. The pertaining situation and wastewater reuse potential are assessed in one of well-known vegetable producing centers in Ghana. Methods/Statistical Analysis: Data was collected using structured interviews and observations in a farm-based survey with 50 selected farmers (i.e. 30% of estimated farmers) between February and March 2015. Data analyses employed descriptive statistics, one-sample t-test and Chi square goodness-of-fit test at 5% significance level. Findings: Few farmers (12%, n=6) own their farmlands, and 36% (n=18) were renting at a median cost of GHS 87.5 per acre/year (GHS 77.3±35.6), which is costlier than the expected. Sizes of farmlands were mostly 1 – 2 acres (82%, n=41, p=0.064), smaller than expected although statistically insignificant. Most farmers planted vegetables all seasons (both dry and wet) (88%, n=44), and 1 – 2 different vegetables are planted on-plot at a time by most farmers as well (86%, n=43). Farmers mostly depended on direct rains (rain fed irrigation) and rain-dependent water sources (94% to 95%). Meanwhile, awareness and willingness to practice wastewater irrigation is low, 20% (n=10) and 4% (n=2) respectively. Some cost analyses and means of family livelihood are discussed in the paper. Application/ Improvements: Vegetable farmland tenure arrangements are not the best but make farmers insecure and incur high rent. Farmers’ livelihoods are prone to rainwater source overdependence. Wastewater reuse potential must be explored. Keywords: Farmland Tenure, Ghana, Vegetable Farmers, Wastewater Reuse, Water Sources

Identification of beef production farms in the Pampas and Campos area that stand out in economic and environmental performance

Worldwide, native grasslands are being converted to non-native pastures and cropland. This process threatens local grassland biomes as well as the livelihoods of farm families that utilize these grasslands.In the Río de la Plata grasslands region meat production and multispecies native grasslands have coexisted for more than 400 years. Low levels of meat productivity and farm income, however, trigger replacement of native grasslands by crops and leys and threaten the survival of local beef farming systems. We studied the economic and environmental performance of beef farming in the region based on interviews and field measurements on 280 case study farms with the following aims: (a) to identify the multi-functional economic and environmental performance of beef farms across the Rio de la Plata grasslands biome; (b) to identify farms with ‘outstanding’ multi-functional performance; (c) to compare performance levels with those found in other regions; and (d) to discuss the implications of the outstanding farms for the development of new systems of meat production. The representativeness of the case study farms was ascertained by comparing them with a farm typology constructed from survey data of 15,448 beef farms situated predominantly on native grasslands in Argentina, Brazil and Uruguay. We identified seven farm types on the basis of farm size, labour, farm specialization, land use and stocking rate.We identified positive deviant farms based on Pareto-ranking and compared these with a classification based on threshold values provided by experts. Out of the 280 farms, 41 were ranked as Pareto-optimal, i.e. outperformed other farms in one or more indicators without being outperformed in other indicators. Out of these, 5 were positive deviants, achieving on average 192 kg LW ha−1 yr−1 of livestock productivity and 201 US$ ha−1 year−1 farm income, having most favourable values for fossil energy consumption, phosphorus balance, carbon footprint and having over 95% of their land under native grassland as a proxy for biodiversity conservation value. Four of these farms belonged to farm types that together represented 55% of the population, suggesting scope for widescale improvement.Compared to the values reported for the OECD countries the beef farming systems of the Río de la Plata grasslands region consume less energy and positive deviant farms demonstrated approximately average livestock productivity and carbon footprint. Increasing livestock productivity in the Rio de la Plata grasslands region resulted in a stronger decline of the carbon footprint without compromising the current negligible levels of fossil fuel energy use. Further elucidation of management practices that lead to positive deviant performance will require modelling of the interaction of pasture and herd dynamics at farm level and is needed to support targeted policy support for sustainable natural grassland-based beef production in the region.

Human uses and indigenous knowledge of edible termites in Vhembe District, Limpopo Province, South Africa

Termites are a good food source, being rich in proteins, fats, vitamins and many essential mineral nutrients, and thus provide food security for poor households. We report on a survey conducted in the Vhembe District Municipality of Limpopo Province, South Africa, to identify edible termite species and find out how they are harvested, prepared, graded, packaged and marketed. We also looked at the socio-economic factors of the harvesters, marketers and consumers. Using a structured questionnaire, 104 individuals were interviewed from 48 villages. Most of the harvesters were over the age of 60 years but termites are consumed by the whole family. The results of the survey revealed that only three termite species are consumed: soldiers of Macrotermes falciger (89.90%), M. natalensis (8.08%) and M. michaelseni (2.02%). The preferred method of preparation was frying (77.55% of the respondents). At least 80.77% of the respondents indicated that some religions have restrictions on termite consumption but no ethnic restrictions were reported. The income derived from selling termites was estimated to range from ZAR2040 to ZAR17 680 per annum between April 2015 and April 2016. The results of this study showed that edible termites contribute significantly to the livelihoods of many rural families and this indigenous knowledge should be passed on to younger generations. Research on the sustainability of termite harvesting is recommended.
 Significance: 
 
 Termites are sources of food with high economic and social importance, and are easily accessible by the poor.
 Studies have been conducted on edible termites in many African countries, yet comparatively little is known about edible termites in South Africa.
 Preservation of indigenous knowledge used during harvesting and processing needs to be prioritised.

Baricsio: the slate quarrymen’s barracks of North-West Wales

This paper presents a study of the barracks that housed the slate quarrymen of North-West Wales. Out of sight and out of mind, these industrial dwellings have been overlooked since their construction 150 years ago, despite the important story they tell of the men who sacrificed their family lives to extract the slate that roofed the industrial world.Limited research into the barracks’ construction and inhabitation has been carried out, and few accounts bring together both quantitative and qualitative aspects surrounding the barrack-dwelling quarrymen. As time goes on, the dry slate walls of the barracks are returning to the landscape that produced them, and which gave them their purpose and physical presence. The social history of the wider sphere that the quarrymen existed within is documented to some extent in newspaper accounts, as well as in poetry and song. At one end was the family home, with the weekly commute, weekend family and rural subsistence livelihood, and at the other, the quarry, with bleak conditions and backbreaking work, yet having cultural and political opportunities unavailable in rural domestic life.

Gender and Conflict

Violent conflicts come with a high level of wreckage on lives, property, and survival networks. Armed conflict terrorizes and kills large numbers of people, creates economic dislocation, human and capital flight, massive impoverishment and social breakdown. Thus, making the challenges faced by post-conflict countries more severe than those faced by poor but peaceful developing countries. During a war, women are considered vulnerable to exploitation, abuse, sexual slavery, disease, and forced recruitment into armed groups. As survivors of violent conflict, they bear the burden of reconstruction. This kind of stereotypical connotation associated with women has led to gender inequality regarding who is considered as weak and victim during a war. It is contended that men are the ones who engage in war and when they are killed, disappear, or dislocated, women are left behind with the burden of ensuring family livelihood. Women and their roles in society have become more and more prominent not only in the scientific discussions of conflict but also post-conflict reconstruction and sustenance of peace. This work, therefore, sought to discuss how the discourse about war is gendered and throwed light on gendered violence in contemporary warfare and the gendered role played during war/conflict. Besides, it discusses the impact of conflict on women as well as the role women played in post-conflict reconstruction to enhance development. I do not try to base my arguments on a bias male perspective but the available literature and contend that though women suffer violence in war-torn societies, they are not only victims of war but also engage in war.