Fair Behavior Research Articles

Children avoid inefficient but fair partners in a cooperative game

Human adults use a range of social cues to obtain information about potential partners in cooperative contexts: we prefer partners who are competent, wealthy and generous, and those who abide by moral and social rules. One factor that carries particular weight is whether a prospective partner is fair. Here we ask whether children share this preference for fair partners and, if so, whether a prospective partner’s past fair behaviour influences children’s behaviour in a cooperative dilemma. Six- to nine-year-olds chose between partners who accepted or rejected resource allocations that were either strongly advantageously unequal, strongly disadvantageously unequal, or equal. They then played a one-shot Prisoner’s Dilemma Game with their chosen partner. Children overwhelmingly preferred to play with the partner who accepted rather than rejected allocations. Regardless of their partner choice decisions, children tended to defect in the Prisoner’s Dilemma Game, yet expected that their partners would be relatively more cooperative. Finally, children were more likely to cooperate with those they believed would cooperate. Together, these findings shed new light on the links between partner choice, fairness and cooperation in child development.

Aktualisasi Perilaku Aparatur dalam Pelayanan Izin Mendirikan Bangunan

The results of the study discovered that the actualization of personnel in building construction permit services in Lhokseumawe city, Aceh, Indonesia, is manifested through fair behavior, work quality behavior, competency behavior, initiative behavior, communication behavior, and work standard behavior. This research concludes that although the behavior of the officials has been manifested in the aforementioned behavior, it has not been fully actualized in the building construction permit service, because there are still many internal and external obstacles. Internal obstacles such as limited personnel resources, services that are not yet transparent and not accountable. Besides, there is no certainty of time, no operational standard work, and complicated bureaucratic path. The external obstacle is the lack of public legal awareness, and most of them have not fulfilled the completeness of administrative documents. It is suggested that the apparatus can actualize their behavior in IMB services optimally. This study suggests that the stakeholder should provide particular and extra training and education for the personnel, including character building, as well as forming a special team to supervise and evaluate the IMB.

Costly fairness in children is influenced by who is watching.

Advantageous inequity aversion emerges relatively late in child development, yet the mechanisms explaining its late emergence are poorly understood. Here, we ask whether children begin to reject advantageous inequity, a costly form of fairness, once reputational concerns are in place. Specifically, we examine the role of peer monitoring in promoting fair behavior. In Study 1 (N = 212 pairs; Ages 6 to 9), we test whether children are less likely to reject advantageous allocations depending on who is aware of their behavior. Results show that children are more likely to accept advantageous allocations when their peer partner is unaware of their advantage. In Study 2 (N = 134 pairs; Ages 8 and 9), we show that this effect is driven specifically by whether the affected peer partners can see the allocation and not by whether third-party peer observers witness the decision. Together, these results shed light on the factors influencing fairness development in childhood and, more specifically, suggest that advantageous inequity aversion is influenced by a desire to appear fair to those getting the short end of the stick. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

School Climate: A Comparative Study from the Perspective of Kindergarten Principals and Teachers

The aim of this study is to determine the school climate in formal kindergartens, to examine the factors affecting it and its effect on education and to use teachers and school principals’ views to point out the elements necessary for its improvement. Partially mixed sequential dominant status design, which is a two-stage (qualitative and qualitative) mixed design was used in the study. In the first stage, 115 teachers and 34 school principals of 18 independent kindergartens in Eskisehir were administered an Organizational Climate Scale to determine the working climates of the kindergartens. In the second stage, semi-structured interviews were conducted with the teachers and principals of the two schools with the highest and lowest scale scores to investigate the reasons for the differences in school climates and their effect on education. Principals’ personalities and their communication and problem solving skills, and support, praise and encouragement given to teachers, fair behavior, openness to new ideas and involving staff in decision making play an important role in creating a positive school climate. School climate has a great impact on students through teachers and staff.

Moral judgment modulates fairness consideration in the early outcome evaluation stage

Morality, concern for the welfare of others, is an important criterion of how individuals treat others, including justice, fairness, and rights. Moral judgment is the process of evaluating the behavior of others and oneself according to social norms. Morality might affect social cooperation with others by entailing the belief that someone should be rewarded or punished. The ultimatum game is a classic paradigm that can be used to study the fairness behavior of social cooperation. Previous studies have shown that some social factors (e.g., social distance, social exclusion, and social evaluation) influence fairness behavior in the ultimatum game. Using the event-related potential (ERP) technique to examine the neural basis of the ultimatum game, studies found that feedback-related negativity (FRN) was modulated by social factors. This effect indicates that the influence of social factors mainly appears in the early stage of outcome evaluation. However, the influence of moral judgment on social cooperation and its neural mechanism remains unclear. The present study focused on whether moral judgment would affect fairness consideration in the early outcome evaluation stage. For this purpose, we used moral sentences within the ultimatum game to assess the influence of moral judgment and fairness of offers on decision-making. A total of 25 participants who acted as respondents completed the ultimatum game with blood donors, murderers, and unidentified individuals as proposers. A moral sentence (e.g., He is a blood donor) was given as a reminder of the moral identity of the players before each round. Participants were told that other players would gain ￥50, and proposers would make an allocation offer. There were five types of allocation offers: ￥5, ￥10, ￥15, ￥20 or ￥25. Participants were asked to accept or reject the offers. At the same time, the ERP was locked to the onset of the offers. The acceptance rate of each offer was included in the behavioral data. The dependent variable was the acceptance rate of the five allocation offers and moral primes were the independent variable when performing one-way ANOVAs. Regarding ERP data, ￥5 and ￥10 were considered as unfair offers and ￥20 and ￥25 as fair offers in order to analyze the amplitudes of FRN and P300. Two-way repeated measures ANOVAs (moral judgment, three levels; offer fairness, two levels) were performed to compare ERP data. Behavioral results showed that the acceptance rate of unfair offers from blood donors was significantly higher than that of murderers. Furthermore, the acceptance rate of fair offers from murderers was significantly lower than that of blood donors and unidentified individuals. ERP results revealed that the FRN amplitude was more negative-going in response to unfair than to fair offers. The fairness of offers modulated FRN amplitude only regarding blood donors, but not for murderers and unidentified individual conditions. P300 was larger for fair offers compared to unfair offers and was not affected by moral judgment. These results indicate that when moral judgment conflicts with the fairness criterion, individuals might rely on moral judgment to make decisions. People may have a higher expectation of fairness from individuals with high moral standards, while unfair behaviors could induce strong negative emotions. FRN represents unfair behaviors that violate social norms and shows that the early outcome evaluation stage is also modulated by moral judgment, while the late stage is independent of moral judgment.

How leadership behaviors influence the effects of job predictability and perceived employability on employee mental health - a multilevel, prospective study.

ObjectivesThis study aimed to elucidate the potential moderating effect of fair-, empowering-, and supportive-leadership behaviors on the relationship between job predictability, future employability, and subsequent clinically relevant mental distress.MethodThe study had a full panel, prospective design, utilizing online, self-administered questionnaire data collected at two time points, two years apart. Fair-, empowering-, and supportive-leadership behaviors, job predictability and future employability were measured by the General Nordic Questionnaire for Psychological and Social Factors at Work (QPSNordic). Mental health was measured using the 10-item Hopkins Symptom Checklist (HSCL-10), with cut-off set to >1.85 to identify clinically relevant cases. As data were nested within work units, a multilevel analytic approach was chosen.ResultsIndividual-level direct effects: (i) higher levels of job predictability [odds ratio (OR) 0.83, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.70–0.98], (ii) future employability (OR 0.83, 95% CI 0.74–0.93), (iii) fair- (OR 0.78, 95% CI 0.68–0.91), empowering- (OR 0.77, 95% CI 0.67–0.87), and supportive- (OR 0.71, 95% CI 0.61–0.81) leadership behavior, and (iv) the combination “quality of leadership” (OR 0.69, 95% CI 0.59–0.81) were significantly associated with a lower risk of reporting subsequent mental distress. Work-unit level direct effects: higher work-unit levels of fair- (OR 0.52, 95% CI 0.34–0.80) and empowering- (OR 0.61, 95% CI 0.40–0.94) leadership behaviors and quality of leadership (OR 0.54, 95% CI 0.34–0.87) were significantly associated with a lowered risk of subsequent mental distress. Cross-level interactions: No cross-level interaction effects were shown.ConclusionsLeadership behaviors did not moderate the effects of job predictability and future employability on mental health. However, employees embedded within work-units characterized by fair, empowering and supportive leadership behaviors had a lower risk of subsequent mental distress.

FAIR Convergence Matrix: Optimizing the Reuse of Existing FAIR-Related Resources

The FAIR principles articulate the behaviors expected from digital artifacts that are Findable, Accessible, Interoperable and Reusable by machines and by people. Although by now widely accepted, the FAIR Principles by design do not explicitly consider actual implementation choices enabling FAIR behaviors. As different communities have their own, often well-established implementation preferences and priorities for data reuse, coordinating a broadly accepted, widely used FAIR implementation approach remains a global challenge. In an effort to accelerate broad community convergence on FAIR implementation options, the GO FAIR community has launched the development of the FAIR Convergence Matrix. The Matrix is a platform that compiles for any community of practice, an inventory of their self-declared FAIR implementation choices and challenges. The Convergence Matrix is itself a FAIR resource, openly available, and encourages voluntary participation by any self-identified community of practice (not only the GO FAIR Implementation Networks). Based on patterns of use and reuse of existing resources, the Convergence Matrix supports the transparent derivation of strategies that optimally coordinate convergence on standards and technologies in the emerging Internet of FAIR Data and Services.

Explaining Fairness : Results from an Experiment in Guinea.

Fairness is undoubtedly an essential normative concept in humans and promotes cooperation in human societies. The fact that fairness exists is puzzling, however, because it works against the short-term interest of individuals. Theories of genetic evolution, cultural evolution, and gene-culture coevolution identify plausible mechanisms for the evolution of fairness in humans. Such mechanisms include kin selection, the support of group-beneficial moral norms through ethnic markers, free partner choice with equal outside options, and free partner choice with reputation as well as spite in small populations. Here, we present the results of a common-pool resource game experiment on sharing. Based on data from 37 multiethnic villages in a subsistence agricultural population in Foutah Djallon, Guinea, we show that fair behavior in our experiment increased with increasing ethnic homogeneity and market integration. Group size and kinship had the opposite effect. Overall, fair behavior was not conditional on reputation. Instead, the ability of the different village populations to support individuals' fairness in situations lacking the opportunity to build a positive reputation varied significantly. Our results suggest that evolutionary theory provides a useful framework for the analysis of fairness in humans.

Justice Climate and Workgroup Outcomes: The Role of Coworker Fair Behavior and Workgroup Structure

Research on justice climate demonstrates a consistent effect on workgroup outcomes such as job satisfaction, commitment, and performance. However, little research considers how justice climate affects these outcomes and when the relationship is stronger or weaker. In an effort to extend the literature on justice climate, we draw on research on other types of organizational climate to suggest justice climate influences the fair behavior of coworkers. Specifically, we propose fair coworker behavior mediates the relationship between justice climate and outcomes. Further, we examine the influence of workgroup structure on this mediated relationship. We examine these relationships in two studies and find support for the mediating effect of fair coworker behavior and the proposed moderated mediation model. Implications of these results for justice and climate research are considered.

Mapping Antecedents of Innovative Work Behavior: A Conceptual Review

Employee innovative behavior contributes to organizational success, and to overall business viability in the current competitive business environment. This paper analyzes past research and outlines some antecedents of innovative work behaviour. The paper proposes a framework depicting relationships among transformational leadership, leader-member exchange, employee perceptions of fairness and innovative work behavior. The paper follows a rigorous, systematic review of published studies representing the literature addressing transformational leadership, leader-member exchange, employee perceptions of fairness and innovative work behavior. The paper relied extensively on computerized keyword searches in the main business source databases of EBSCOhost, Emerald, ProQuest, ScienceDirect and SpringerLink supplemented by a manual review. The review leads to a credible conceptual framework that elucidates the relationship among transformational leadership, leader-member exchange, employee perceptions of fairness and innovative work behavior. Consequently, the framework advances theories on effective leader behavior, employees' perceptions of fairness and innovative work behavior. The framework helps unpack some underlying mechanisms through which leadership directly and indirectly influences employee innovative work behavior. Recognizing that innovative work behavior is influenced by the quality of supervisor-subordinate relationship, our conceptual framework stimulates a behavior-oriented approach to innovative work behavior research and has the potential to generate actionable knowledge to manage innovative work behavior. Top management could utilize our framework when executing organizational design interventions that engender and shape innovative work behavior. Our framework also advocates for the promotion of effective leader behavior and employees' perceptions of fairness which support innovative work behaviour. In practical terms, organizations could train their supervisors to exhibit more transformational leader behaviors as they stimulate idea generation and implementation. Further, organizations could roll out training focusing on developing better exchange relationships between leaders and their followers. Additionally, organizations, aware of the impact of employee perception of fairness on innovative work behavior, could develop fair and equitable procedures or introduce interventions targeting the development of required behavior which in turn could stimulate innovative work behavior. Future research could benefit by focusing on how specific dimensions of transformational leadership influence employee innovative work behavior at the individual, team and organizational levels. Furthermore, future research could focus on how individual differences impact leadership, perceptions of fairness and innovative work behaviour.

Channel coordination of a two-echelon sustainable supply chain with a fair-minded retailer under cap-and-trade regulation

Abstract With the growing level of public environmental consciousness, sustainability has become an important issue in the area of supply chain management. This paper focuses on a channel coordination problem in a two-echelon sustainable supply chain involving one socially responsible manufacturer and one fair-minded retailer. Constructing mathematical models to characterize the problem, four particular contracts are developed to investigate the environmental performance and channel profit under the framework of two non-cooperative contracts: wholesale price and two-part tariff, and two cooperative contracts: Nash bargaining and Rubinstein bargaining. Theoretical analysis verified by numerical experiments shows that the wholesale price contract performs worse than the other three in terms of the carbon emission per unit product and channel profit. In addition, the two-part tariff contract can partially coordinate the supply chain, whereas both bargaining contracts can achieve perfect coordination to provide outcomes of the centralized decision. Comparing with the fair-neutral scenarios, we find that the fairness behavior promotes the retailer’s profit, but reduces the manufacturer’s profit under different contracts. Sensitivity analysis reveals that with intensified fairness concerns, the sustainability level and channel profit diminish under non-cooperative contracts, but remain the same under cooperative contracts. The Nash bargaining and Rubinstein bargaining contracts are robust to the degree of the retailer’s fairness behavior and could be the best choice for the socially responsible manufacturer.

The Effects of an Appropriate Behavior Program on Elementary School Children Social Skills Development in Physical Education.

The purpose of this study was to see the effects of an appropriate behavior development program in relation to the improvement of fair play and social skills behaviors of elementary school children during the physical education class. The participants of this study were 204 students from 5th and 6th grade from seven different public schools in Castilla–La Mancha, Spain. Data was collected through a questionnaire to measure students’ pre and post appropriate behaviors when winning, appropriate behaviors when loosing, appropriate behaviors during the game, fair play skills and social skills, during the physical education class. Results from this study revealed that participants improved their behaviors with the implementation of the intervention (appropriate behavior program), generating positive changes in students’ attitudes and social skills during physical education class. In relation to children gender, girls had better scores than boys in relation to appropriate behaviors when losing. Further, when comparing students’ age, those from 10 to 11 years old scored higher in fair play behaviors and social skills. In conclusion, the intervention program was effective to improve the behaviors of the school children, generating positive changes in their attitudes and social skills during physical education.

Evaluating FAIR maturity through a scalable, automated, community-governed framework

Transparent evaluations of FAIRness are increasingly required by a wide range of stakeholders, from scientists to publishers, funding agencies and policy makers. We propose a scalable, automatable framework to evaluate digital resources that encompasses measurable indicators, open source tools, and participation guidelines, which come together to accommodate domain relevant community-defined FAIR assessments. The components of the framework are: (1) Maturity Indicators – community-authored specifications that delimit a specific automatically-measurable FAIR behavior; (2) Compliance Tests – small Web apps that test digital resources against individual Maturity Indicators; and (3) the Evaluator, a Web application that registers, assembles, and applies community-relevant sets of Compliance Tests against a digital resource, and provides a detailed report about what a machine “sees” when it visits that resource. We discuss the technical and social considerations of FAIR assessments, and how this translates to our community-driven infrastructure. We then illustrate how the output of the Evaluator tool can serve as a roadmap to assist data stewards to incrementally and realistically improve the FAIRness of their resources.

Appearance-based trust processing in schizophrenia.

Schizophrenia is characterized by impaired social interactions and altered trust. In the general population, trust is often based on facial appearance, with limited validity but enormous social consequences. The aim was to examine trust processing in schizophrenia and specifically to examine how people with schizophrenia use facial appearance as well as actual partner fairness to guide trusting decisions. An experimental economic game study. Here, we tested how patients with schizophrenia and control participants (each N=24) use facial trustworthiness appearance and partner fairness behaviour to guide decisions in a multi-round Trust Game. In the Trust Game, participants lent money to 'partners' whose facial appearance was either untrustworthy or trustworthy, and who either played fairly or unfairly. Clinical symptoms were measured as well as explicit trustworthiness impressions. Overall, the patients with schizophrenia showed unimpaired explicit facial trustworthiness impressions and unimpaired facial appearance biases in the Trust Game. Crucially, patients and controls significantly differed so that the patients with schizophrenia did not learn to discriminate in the Trust Game based on actual partner fairness, unlike control participants. A failure to discriminate trust has important implications for everyday functioning in schizophrenia, as forming accurate trustworthiness beliefs is an essential social skill. Critically, without relying on more valid trust cues, people with schizophrenia may be especially susceptible to the misleading effect of appearance when making trusting decisions. Findings People with schizophrenia made very similar facial trustworthiness impressions to healthy controls and also used facial appearance to guide trust decisions similarly to controls. However, the patient group were less able to explicitly distinguish between fair and unfair partners based on their behaviour compared with the control group. Moreover, people with schizophrenia failed to use actual partner fairness to guide their financial decisions in the Trust Game, unlike controls, and this impairment was specific to a social task. People with schizophrenia may be particularly reliant on facial appearance when trusting others, as they may struggle to incorporate more valid trustworthiness information in their decision-making, such as actual partner fairness.

On the Nature of Fair Behaviour: Further Evidence

This paper offers further experimental evidence on the nature of fair behaviour, investigating the effects of different splitting options on offers and rejection rates of low offers in ultimatum games. The experiment provides a robustness check of the validity of the results in the literature concerning the behaviour of the proposer and questions the reliability of interdependent preferences for explaining rejection rates. We test whether the introduction of a 50–50 splitting option combined with observability by a third-party may have an impact on offers and rejection rates of low offers. We find similar results as previous studies regarding the impact on offers by introducing the 50–50 option, consistent with a “regard for others” effect. We show that the impact appears to be enhanced by introducing observability, consistent with a “regard by others” effect. Introducing a 50–50 splitting option seems to increase the rejection rate for low offers as in previous studies, but turns out not significant. The introduction of the 50–50 option combined with observability may have some impact on the rejection rate, albeit not highly significant.

개인가치, 공정관광행동 그리고 지각된 관광갈등의 영향관계 : 정주형 문화유산관광지를 중심으로

개인가치, 공정관광행동 그리고 지각된 관광갈등의 영향관계 : 정주형 문화유산관광지를 중심으로

Social capital and banking system profitability: A survey of European Union countries

Over the last years, the concept of social capital as a facilitator of economic activities has been a remarkable issue among economists. In this article, we study the impact of social capital on banking performance focusing on profitability in the European Union for period 2008-2016. Social capital indicators are applied in the model are "trust in others" and "fair behavior of others". We expect more profitable banks in societies with higher levels of social capital. According to the type of data, we apply GMM estimator to do more efficient estimations. We use auxiliary variables such as bank asset, capital adequacy, real interest rate, the cost to income ratio as micro variables, GDP and inflation are employed as macros. Our estimations point at a rejection of the main hypothesis. Opportunistic behavior and less social trust result in more profits for European countries. We justify the results in two ways. First, due to the 2008 financial crisis, trust in all institutions has decreased in European countries. The second reason concerns countries with low levels of social capital. The decrease of trust for the banking system is lower than for other institutions. Therefore, that sector may benefit is such circumstances.

The role of ventromedial prefrontal cortex and temporo-parietal junction in third-party punishment behavior

Third parties punish, sacrificing personal interests, offenders who violate either fairness or cooperation norms. This behavior is defined altruistic punishment and the degree of punishment typically increases with the severity of the norm violation. An opposite and apparently paradoxical behavior, namely anti-social punishment, is the tendency to spend own money to punish cooperative or fair behaviors. Previous fMRI studies correlated punishment behavior with increased activation of brain areas belonging to the reward system (e.g. the ventromedial prefrontal cortex, VMPFC), the mentalizing (e.g. the temporoparietal junction, TPJ) and central-executive networks. In the present study, we aimed at investigating the causal role of VMPFC and TPJ in punishment behaviors through the application of anodal transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS).Sixty healthy participants were randomly assigned to three tDCS conditions: (1) anodal tDCS over VMPFC, (2) anodal tDCS over right TPJ (rTPJ), (3) sham stimulation. At the end of the stimulation, participants played a third-party punishment game, consisting in viewing a series of fair or unfair monetary allocations between unknown proposers and recipients. Participants were asked whether and how much they would punish the proposers using their own monetary endowment. To test membership effects, proposers and recipients could be either Italian or Chinese.Anodal tDCS over VMPFC increased altruistic punishment behavior whereas anodal tDCS over rTPJ increased anti-social punishment choices compared with sham condition, while membership did not influence participant's choices. Our results support the idea that the two types of punishment behaviors rely upon different brain regions, suggesting that reward and mentalizing systems underlie, respectively, altruistic and anti-social punishment behaviors.

Pricing Strategies in Dual-Channel Reverse Supply Chains Considering Fairness Concern.

The fierce competition in the recycling industry and the rapid development of internet technology has prompted recycling centers to develop a dual-channel reverse supply chain with both offline and online recycling channels. After the introduction of online channels, recycling centers and third-party recyclers (TPR) have paid attention to the division of profits in supply chain systems and the behavior of fairness concerns. Therefore, it is necessary to help recycling enterprises make pricing decisions in consideration of fairness concerns. This paper is aimed at answering the following two main questions: (1) When the recycling center or TPR have fairness concerns, how does the optimal pricing and revenue of supply chain members change when both sides are neutral? (2) When the fairness concern coefficient changes, how does the overall revenue of the supply chain system change? How should supply chain members adjust their pricing decisions to maximize their own profits? In order to solve the above problems, Stackelberg game models were made from three aspects: both sides are neutral, only the TPR has fairness concerns, and only the recycling center has fairness concerns. Based on the results of the example analyses for the model, we found that when only the TPR has fairness concerns, the profit of the recycling center and the transfer price of offline channels will decrease, while the profit of TPR is the opposite. Furthermore, when only a recycling center has fairness concerns, it will lead to the reduction of not only the recycling price and transfer price of offline channels, but also the profits of the entire supply chain system. Specially, whether it is for a recycling center or TPR, a lower level of fairness concern coefficient has a stronger impact on pricing and revenue than at high levels.

Effects of Empathy on the Evolutionary Dynamics of Fairness in Group‐Structured Systems

The ultimatum game has been a prominent paradigm in studying the evolution of fairness. It predicts that responders should accept any nonzero offer and proposers should offer the smallest possible amount according to orthodox game theory. However, the prediction strongly contradicts with the experimental behaviors where the mean offer typically ranges from 0.3 to 0.5 and the mean demand tends to lie between 0.2 and 0.35. To explain the evolution of such fair behaviors, here we introduce empathy in a mutation‐selection process with group structure and find that our results quantitatively reproduce the experimental behaviors at low randomness with intermediate empathy or relatively high randomness with small empathy. Moreover, we show that with low randomness more empathy leads to a fairer outcome with a higher mean offer and demand. Counterintuitively, more empathy corresponds to a lower mean offer together with a higher mean demand for relatively high randomness. Finally, we analytically provide the mean offer and demand under both weak and strong intensities of selection when the largest or smallest level of empathy is introduced. Our study provides systematic insights into the evolutionary origin of fairness in a mutation‐selection process with empathetic strategies and group structure.