EU Energy Security Research Articles

EU Energy Security After Russia’s Invasion of Ukraine – Substance, Strategy and Lobbying

The energy supply of individual countries and international organisations plays a key role for economic development. Energy is a specific good, where access to it must be stable and uninterrupted. The functioning of any country’s economy depends on a well-functioning energy sector, but unfortunately, over recent years, newer and newer threats to energy security have been emerging, in addition to the consumption of scarce natural resources. These include not only uncertain and unstable suppliers, but also natural disasters and cyber-attacks to which energy networks are increasingly exposed. Over the last few years, the issue of energy security has also become increasingly important in the EU. After Russia’s invasion of Ukraine in 2022, this policy acquired an entirely new dimension as the turbulence in EU energy markets contributed to significant economic difficulties including, among other factors, rising inflation in all EU Member States. Since then, the main priority of the EU’s energy policy has become the security and stability of energy supply. The aim of this article is to present and assess the effectiveness of the main EU measures taken to improve the EU’s energy security following Russia’s invasion of Ukraine. These actions are extremely important to ensure long-term energy security in the EU, so it is essential that only the EU’s interests are taken into account. The article also highlights the dangers of the fossil fuel lobby and their influencing the EU’s decision-making process on energy security.

Trends in the development of EU energy policy at the present stage

The issue of energy security and energy independence of the EU is one of the key factors in ensuring the stable development of the association. The subject of the study is the energy concepts of the European Union. The object of the study is the modern energy policy of the EU countries. The countries of the European Union are among the world's largest importers and exporters of energy resources, and therefore one of the criteria for EU energy security is the creation of secure logistics chains for uninterrupted energy supplies, since this factor has always been one of the most important problems in energy security. However, despite all the data that the European Union has, this area is a source of numerous problems for ensuring energy security that the EU faces at the current stage of its development. The methodological basis of the study is a systematic analysis and a geo-economic approach. The systematic approach was used in the work to identify the reasons for the transformation of EU energy concepts in the context of the energy crisis. The geo-economic approach allows us to qualitatively consider this issue from the point of view of economics and geopolitics of the countries of Eastern and Western Europe in the context of energy transition. The novelty of the research lies in the comprehensive analysis of the concept of energy security in the complex in the context of energy transfer. The authors pay special attention to the analysis of the energy policy of the European Union, numerous new initiatives and documents related to this area, as well as the development of the concept of green energy. The authors highlight the challenges that the EU will face on the way to building a stable and safe energy sector. The paper also examines the impact of the EU's energy policy on the concept of European unity. Attention is being paid to the EU's attempts to diversify energy supplies, which plays an important role in the context of the Ukrainian crisis and complications from the loss of Russian supplies. The authors conclude that the lack of internal unity within the EU does not allow for an effective and sustainable energy policy, since the European Union does not have a common energy legislation, and infrastructure development between the countries of Western and Eastern Europe is overly diversified, which does not allow us to talk about the transformation of energy policy in the EU countries at the present stage.

2022 Russian-Ukrainian War and the Future of EU Energy and Transport Security: Analyzing the Implications of Diversifification the Transport and Energy Transit Routes – the Case of the Black Sea/Caspian Region

Given recent events, such as the full invasion of Ukraine’s sovereign territories by the Russian armyin 2022, this article critically analyzes how the use of the Caucasus-Caspian region could serve Brusselsas an alternative means of diversifying energy sources to ensure its energy security. The study iscomprehensive and covers various forms of energy projects. Particular attention is paid to exploringthe various phases regarding Shah Deniz and potential expansion plans. In addition, it carefully examinesall other important factors associated with the production, transportation, and explorationof energy resources in the Caspian reserves.In addition, a key task is to classify and compare the EU’s geopolitical priorities before and after the2022 war, present an analysis of the complex paths of transformation of the EU’s energy supply,and clarify its new policies regarding the relations between the main regional players: the RussianFederation, the EU, Turkey, Azerbaijan, and Georgia.It has been established that the Black Sea-Caspian steppe contains valuable energy reserves. Dueto the critical geopolitical, geostrategic, and geoeconomic importance of the region, the EU has aninterest in the region. The study provides a comparative overview of different aspects of EU energydiversification policies. It examines how these policies have influenced the approach of foreignstates to the Caucasus-Caspian region, taking into account recent events. Moreover, it considersnational goals and takes into account the important interests of leading powers.Keywords: energy security, diversification of fossil fuels, Caucasus-Caspian region, Black Sea-Caspian steppe, EU policy on energy diversification, energy projects.

Development of the LNG market in the European Union in the context of war Russia-Ukraine

According to the latest data from the International Energy Agency, global LNG trade increased by almost 6% year-on-year between January and August 2022. It was dominated by rising demand for the commodity in the European Union. This was driven by sharp cuts in linear gas supplies from Russia, which are linked to the EU's stance of abandoning Russian supplies due to Russia's war with Ukraine, and the subsequent imposition of sanctions by the European Union on Russia. In January-August 2022 alone, LNG imports into the EU increased by as much as 65% (43 bcm) compared to the same period in 2021. Such a significant increase in the supply of LNG to European countries was also made possible by a decline in demand for LNG in the Asia-Pacific region, due to the mild winter, high price levels, and disruptions related to Covid-19 and the aftermath of lockdowns in China. The cut-off of gas supplies from Russia has shown that the LNG market in the EU can play an important role in both the region's energy security and energy transition. In fact, the European Commission treats gas as a blue fuel, much less carbon-intensive than other conventional energy sources such as coal or oil. An additional advantage of LNG is the possibility to transport this fuel from various locations, rapid change of supply directions, and the more extensive possibilities for its storage. For an EU struggling for a stable supply of raw material, pursuing the Green Deal and carrying out an energy transition, this is an option that could become a strategic element in the long term. The research objective of this article is to investigate and analyze how the share of LNG in the EU's energy mix has changed and in what direction it is affecting EU energy security after Russia's aggression in Ukraine.

The new EU energy security reality and its impact on the wider Black Sea region

This brief in-depth research “The new EU energy security reality and its impact on the wider Black Sea region” on a security Studies was organized by David Aghmashenebeli National Defence Academy of Georgia, Germany. Its goal is to support the security of the Wider Black Sea Region energy supply chains. The purpose of this project is to answer to the main question: Will EU energy security impact the south-eastern flank of the Euro-Atlantic space. Russia's war in Ukraine has created new problems that are not addressed by outdated security programs and old-fashioned traditional defence approaches. That the war in Ukraine is not the cause of a future conflict against the world order is not a new point of view, furthermore, the war in Ukraine is one of the results of the already existing conflict. It is a real possibility that the Kremlin will continue its aggressive foreign policy towards its neighbours and neighbours of neighbours in order to consolidate global power and "legitimacy". The eternal war in the region exposed the EU’s economic weaknesses in energy exports and supply chains. Military professionals believe that whoever controls the east of the Euro-Atlantic space and/or dominates the Black Sea, can easily project power on the European continent, Central Europe, the Mediterranean, the North/South Caucasus and the Middle East. Russia eternal war has shown us more dependence, weaponization, interference and more vulnerability of the EU Countries; Security is no longer based on the previously established rules. In the near future It’s unlikely that relations between the EU and Russia will be based on beneficial energy relations. The European Union is moving beyond the binary dependency that binds international actors, creating a new reality in which the inclusiveness of energy security extends to several different areas, diversification will be critical for the EU. Supply chains are complicated and messy, it’s implausible to make positive changes overnight. Taking into account Russia sharp growth in military spending, its ability to integrate state resources and masses and it’s "great propensity for risk" makes Russia both a “capable and unpredictable actor”. Russia's blackmail to use nuclear weapons indicates that Kremlin is losing the war due to lack of ammunition and low technological capabilities and in the short term wants to take this war into a protracted or frozen conflict phase. According to the analysis of the processes of the recent past, the stability of the region cannot be successful and effective only with the support of NATO member states on EU's eastern flank. NATO, EU and their partners should have an emergency and long-term assistance strategy for the parties. From the lesson learnt in the last 30+ years on international cooperation issues it is vital that in the next 10-30 years the Euro-Atlantic and regional countries (except Russia) in the region, must counter challenges with collective deterrence of cooperation. Actively promoting stability is possible through the existence of the theory of Russian deterrence. Stability should be achieved by promoting collective deterrence and integration of Russia; a strategy of emergency and long-term assistance not only for alliance members, but also for partners, plus collective deterrence equals fixing and integration of Russia. Speeches and workshops used in editing this paper, Organized by the Research and Policy Analysis Department (RPA) project of Strategic Competition Seminar Series-FY23 SCSS of George C. Marshall European Center for Security Studies (GCMC) at Workshop I held in Garmisch-Partenkirchen, Germany, 20-24 February 2023 entitled “Alternative Ukrainian Future Trajectories: Implications for Russia and the West” and Workshop II held in Berlin, Germany on 16 May 2023“ (A summary of FY23 SCSS#8 hybrid seminar entitled “What if? Russian Variables, Inflection Points and Game Changers?” at SCSS Workshop II) have been very supportive in the preparation of the paper. For the EU and its partners in the region to support the most desirable outcomes and mitigate the worst considering all scenarios discussed in the paper includes following key take-aways: 1. Relationships and cooperation matter 2. Security guarantees matter

Renewable energy sources as an element of increasing the level of EU energy security: legal aspect

Problem setting. The ever-increasing challenges to the European Union’s energy security, the steady increase in energy demand and the commitment to combat climate change make the promotion of renewable energy sources particularly relevant. The author of the article substantiates the thesis that currently the actualization of the use of ecologically clean energy sources already goes beyond the climatic context and has an economic and geopolitical basis. Analysis of recent researches and publications. In Ukraine and abroad, there is a rather illustrious list of scientists who worked on the study of the peculiarities of the regulation of ecologically oriented energy both in the whole world as a whole and in the EU in particular. They are specialists in international, environmental, climate law and EU law. S. Bilotsky, Ya. Benedyk, Yu. Shemshuchenko, Yu. Kogut, K. Huhta, S. Bruce, E. Grigorovic can be singled out separately. Of course, the given list is not exhaustive and contains only a few examples of scientists actively researching the issue of legal regulation of RES support in the European Union and the world. However, it is the actualization of the issue of expanding the use of RES that determines the need for further scientific research, in particular in the area of ensuring energy security in the EU. Purpose of the research is to study the EU regulatory framework in the field of ecologically oriented energy as an integral component of increasing the overall level of EU energy security in the context of modern geopolitical challenges, as well as its improvement after the start of the full-scale invasion of Ukraine by Russia on February 24, 2022, and the study of the results, which are obtained thanks to such normative transformations. The presentation of the main material of the article will relate to the justification of the need to increase the share of renewable energy sources in the energy use of the EU precisely after the start of a full-scale war between Ukraine and Russia. Article’s main body. The presentation of the main material of the article is primarily devoted to an overview of the modern legal regulation of the introduction of renewable energy sources in the EU, as well as to the justification of the importance and advantages of the transition to RES in the context of the modern geopolitical situation caused by the fullscale invasion of Russia into Ukraine and the main challenges arising in connection with this before the region. The author puts forward the thesis that one of the positive aspects of RES development will be the reduction of dependence on imported energy resources in general, and on Russian ones in particular. The problems of global implementation and mechanisms of RES implementation in the EU are briefly highlighted, emphasizing their positive effects. The author also highlights the list of measures necessary for the energy system to provide the EU member states with energy not from fossil fuels, but from ecologically clean sources that do not pollute the environment and do not affect climate change. The author emphasizes the need for active implementation and support of a policy focused on the development of RES, in order to ensure a sustainable, independent and ecologically clean energy future. Attention is drawn to mechanisms for financing and supporting projects aimed at the development of ecologically clean energy, which will allow the EU to cope with modern challenges in the energy sector. Conclusions and prospects for the development. The EU should focus its efforts on increasing the use of wind energy, solar energy, hydropower, geothermal energy and biomass (including peat) for the production of electricity and fuel, which should be based on the national energy strategies of the member states, taking full account of geographical, geological or climatic features, taking into account differences of each member state. Infrastructural compatibility and the development of innovative technologies in the energy sector should also become a priority of the EU member states. New technologies can help minimize the negative effects of climate change on the safety of citizens, and should also be taken into account in the design and operation of stations and networks that will run on renewable energy sources. In addition, it is necessary to ensure the arrival of significant public and private investments in the research and development of “green” technologies and alternative energy and the development of new capacities, in particular through the European Investment Bank and the European Structural Funds and the stimulation of sufficient investments from private donors.

The Russian-Ukrainian Conflict and its Implications for EU Energy Security

The Russian-Ukrainian Conflict and its Implications for EU Energy Security

Turkey's geopolitical importance in maintaining EU energy security

Demonstrating Turkey’s importance to the EU, how Turkey and the EU deal with energy among themselves is the main research question. Based on a descriptive and analytical approach, an attempt has been made to understand the content of Turkey’s role and influence in ensuring EU energy security, which is a kind of complementarity in the EU and Turkey’s energy policy. Turkey is of great importance to the EU in providing energy security as an economic resource and later as a security resource. This importance is reflected in the transportation of several oil pipelines to the European Union, the neighborhood of several countries rich in oil and natural resources.

Commodity exposure in the eurozone: How EU energy security is conditioned by the Euro

Commodity exposure in the eurozone: How EU energy security is conditioned by the Euro

EU Climate and Energy Security after 24 February 2022

Before 2022, EU conceptions of climate and energy security had begun to converge in a ‘virtuous synergy’ that supported the Union’s continuing attempts at international climate policy leadership. This paper argues that the more orthodox military security problem posed by Russia’s invasion of Ukraine coupled with extreme weather events in the same period has profoundly altered both the immediacy and the location of the perceived threats. The Union’s responses have been dramatic in terms of a re-orientation of established energy and security policies. Ending the dependence upon Russian gas provides the chance to accelerate the achievement of the European Green Deal and ‘Fit for 55’ but also involves an immediate quest for alternative gas supplies. The unresolved question is whether the Union can use this opportunity to enhance rather than dissipate its climate security and policy leadership.

Legal conditions of EU energy security

Legal conditions of EU energy security

Each one for themselves: Exploring the energy security paradox of the European Union

Many European Union member states have shown reluctance to voluntarily decrease natural gas consumption during the 2022/2023 winter so as to demonstrate solidarity with members most severely hit by the current energy crisis. This situation underlines the EU's energy security paradox: even though a common approach would contribute to solving member states' energy security problems, they oppose the creation of such a policy as short-term national interests – considered to safeguard energy security – prevail. A common approach would help member states present a much stronger position than they are able to present individually, both in political and economic terms. However, the solidarity negotiations lesson does not show the ability of EU member states to work together vis-à-vis a common threat. The ability to agree on only a minimal amount of jointly purchased gas (and inability to agree on gas sanctions) underlines the fragmentation of the EU's energy security policy, which benefits Russia.

Energy Security of the European Union in the Context of Russian Aggression against Ukraine

Over the past decades, Russia has used the supply, ownership and control of energy resources as an instrument of its foreign policy to strengthen its political influence not only in the post-Soviet space, but also in the EU member states. During the unprovoked Russian aggression against Ukraine, Moscow used energy policy as an energy weapon (demanding to pay for gas in rubles; stopping gas supplies to certain EU member states, including Poland, Bulgaria, and Finland; reducing the volume of supplies through the Nord Stream pipeline; ignoring the capacities of the Ukrainian GTS; provoking an increase in gas prices), which resulted in an acute energy crisis in the European Union. This prompted the EU and national governments of its member states to make significant adjustments to their energy policies in order to overcome the crisis and prevent gas blackmail by European states as a manipulation to circumvent anti-Russian sanctions and political pressure to withdraw support for Ukraine. The purpose of the article is to study the problems of ensuring the energy security of the European Union and its member states in the context of the energy crisis caused by Russia's aggression against Ukraine. The article is aimed at studying the impact of Russian aggression on the EU's energy security, assessing the state of the Energy Union in 2022, and analyzing short-term and long-term strategies in the development of relevant supranational and national energy policies, mainly from a European perspective. Modern European national and supranational energy and climate strategies envisage postponing the phase-out of coal, oil, gas and nuclear power, while accelerating the deployment of renewable energy, improving energy efficiency and a mandatory commitment to increase energy storage. The European Union and its member states are overcoming the consequences of the energy crisis by developing and implementing national strategies, the REPowerEU plan, as well as a number of other measures to reduce energy prices and ensure security of supply. The REPowerEU plan is fully in line with the European Green Deal and includes measures to save energy, diversify and ensure security of supply, accelerate the deployment of renewable energy sources and a reasonable mix of investment and reform. The modernization of the EU's energy policy is aligned with the EU's long-term climate goals. The EU also supports new partnerships with neighboring countries, including Ukraine, to accelerate the global transition to green and fair energy.

THE REFORM OF THE RULES OF PROCEDURE FOR THE MEMBERS OF THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT IN THE CONTEXT OF «QATARGATE»

The article focuses on the proposals for the European Parliament’s reform against the background of a corruption scandal called «Qatargate» due to bribes by MEPs and attempts to influence EU policy towards Qatar during preparation for the 2022 FIFA World Cup. The author traces the EP’s initiative, from the resolution adopted in December 2022, which laid down outlines of the future reform to the EP President’s plan on specific points of reform, which was presented in January 2022. The more radical proposals of the EP political groups that were not included in the final version are particularly noted. The author points to the dissatisfaction of MEPs with the term «Qatargate», which is explained by the EU leadership’s concern to spoil relations with the state, on which the EU energy security largely depends today. The second part of the article addresses the upcoming law on foreign agents within the framework of the EU legislative package for the democracy protection. The author notes that the law, called EuroFARA, is supposed to be an analogue of the US law on foreign agents (FARA), despite the fact that the corresponding Russian law, which was also developed on the FARA basis, is severely criticised in the European Union.

Bezpieczeństwo energetyczne UE i Ukrainy w obliczu agresji ze strony Rosji

The energy security of EU is one of the most important directives of the EU and Ukrainian policy. However, the fact that European politicians underestimated the hazards related to the scale of en- ergy resources imported from Russia and its geopolitical ambitions revealed the shortcomings of the European strategy. Following the Russian aggression in February 2022, the strategic EU method is to ensure the energy independence of the region and the energy security of all member states. This article is devoted to analysing the Russian invasion impact on the energy security of EU and the Ukraine. It analyses major ideas of EU energy policy reform in the face of the Russian invasion of the Ukraine and the perspectives of restoring energy security of European states. The selected systemic and structural‑functional analysis enabled not only to discuss the EU energy security aspects more broadly, but also to emphasize key problems in the short‑ and long‑term perspective.

The Legal and Institutional Feasibility of an EU Climate and Energy Security Fund

The Legal and Institutional Feasibility of an EU Climate and Energy Security Fund

European Economic impacts of cutting energy imports from Russia: A computable general equilibrium analysis

The recent economic sanctions against Russia can jeopardise the sustainability of the European Union’s (EU) energy supply. Despite the EU’s strong commitment to stringent abatement targets, fossil fuels still play a significant role in the EU energy policy. Furthermore, high dependency on Russian energy supplies underlines the vulnerability of the EU energy security. Using a global computable general equilibrium model, we prove that the current EU embargo on coal and oil imported from Russia will have adverse supply effects, substantially increasing energy prices and welfare costs for the EU resident. Although it reduces emissions, extending the embargo to include natural gas doubles this welfare cost. The use of coal is likely to increase, especially with respect to EU electricity generation, given the current constraints of additional import capacities from non-Russian producers. The impact on Russia once the EU extends the sanctions to natural gas is less substantial than on the EU. Russian welfare cost will increase less than 50%, indicating that extending the current restriction to boycott Russian gas is a costly policy option.

The Problems and Prospect s of Ensuring EU Energy Security During the Russian Aggression Against Ukraine

Problem setting. The article highlights the topical problems of the EU’s dependence on the supply of energy resources from Russia against the background of military aggression towards Ukraine and substantiates the importance of overcoming such dependence. Analysis of resent researches and publications. A considerable number of scientific papers published in recent years shows that the issues of energy security and legal support of cooperation between the EU Member States in the energy sector have often been studied by Ukrainian and foreign scientists both lawyers and economists. Currently, in legal and economic doctrines, the sphere of energy relations and, in particular, energy security is most often associated with the names of S. D. Bilotskyi, T. A. Grabovych, R. R. Dubas, M. V. Muzychenko, M. Roggenkamp, K. Talus, P. D. Cameron and others. The war in Ukraine has significantly intensified attempts to maintain a proper state of energy security in Europe and, accordingly, scientific developments in this sphere. Аrticle’s main body. The invasion in Ukraine significantly sway the state of energy security of the EU member states and the entire European continent in general. This, in turn, activated the process of developing a new and improving the existing EU legal framework in the energy sector in the shortest possible time. The author analyzes a set of EU legislative initiatives aimed at helping member states to get through the heating season without large-scale upheavals. From the proposals of the European Commission analyzed by the author, it can be seen that the provisions of the REPowerEU transformation plan, which provides for the use of ecologically clean energy for the needs of the EU, can make a significant contribution to overcoming European energy dependence on Russia. The author comes to the conclusion, that economically effective, rapid and wide-range development of sustainable renewable energy in accordance with the theses of the European Green Deal and the REPowerEU communication can’t be attained by states-members independently. Certainly, that leveling of negative consequences is impossible without effective co-ordination and association of actions of all EU member states. Last decades power politics is the central point of foreign policy of EU and now comes forward as a source of many spores that prevent to the attempts of EU to put right strategic relationships with the neighbours and suppliers of energy. Therefore, research of problems of dependence on the third countries and search of ways of their decision answer the major necessities of contemporaneity and has a substantial value for further development of the EU energy sector. It is concluded that such a set of measures will certainly be accompanied by consequences of an economic nature in the budgetary sphere, in investment policy, the structure of industry production, in the sphere of amortization expenses, price policy and taxation, etc. Conclusions and prospects for the development. The challenges and uncertainties facing the European energy system are the biggest in almost fifty years, since the great energy crises of the 1970s, and therefore the set of measures to overcome the consequences of the war in Ukraine for the EU energy sector is unprecedented. Cost-effective, rapid and large-scale deployment of sustainable renewable energy in line with the provisions of the European Green Deal and the REPowerEU Communication cannot be achieved by Member States on their own. Taking into account the different energy policies between Member States, action at EU level, backed by a robust governance structure, is more likely to achieve the EU’s climate goals and will require a greater deployment of renewables than national or local measures alone. Further measures could also include regulation of gas supply in the form of improved coordination of gas procurement and promotion of joint purchases by European gas market operators on the international market. Furthermore, it would be advisable to consider over time legislative measures to require diversification of gas supplies from individual Member States that have had such experience in the past. Particular attention should also be paid to improving the energy partnership with Ukraine. This would address the issues related to the importance of Ukraine as a transit country as well as those related to the reforms of the Ukrainian energy market, such as the modernisation of the gas network, the establishment of an appropriate regulatory framework for the electricity market and the improvement of energy efficiency in Ukraine as a means of reducing its dependence on imported energy. In the near future, the intention is to strengthen cooperation in the energy sector with the Energy Community, which will ensure closer integration of the EU and Energy Community energy markets, effective implementation of the EU environmental policy and stimulate investments in the energy sector.

The Role of Energy Directives in Ensuring EU Energy Security and the Problems of Implementation in Ukrainian Legislation

This article attempts to analyze the role of energy directives in ensuring energy security of the European Union, as well as the analysis of the current state of their implementation in the legislation of Ukraine in accordance with the Treaty establishing the Energy Community and the Association Agreement with the EU. The development of legal security of energy sphere in the EU from the Treaty of Paris on the European Coal and Steel Community to the fourth energy package, which allowed to provide the development of competition among producers and suppliers of energy resources, to provide equal access to the energy distribution and gas-distribution networks, to liberalize the energy sector and energy resources, to increase the use of green energy, to reduce emissions into the atmosphere, and to raise the level of energy security in Ukraine. In this article, authors have used the systematic approach and legal method analysis of the implementation process of EU Energy Directives in the Ukrainian legislation, in particular the Law "On Natural Gas Market", the Law "On Electricity Market", the Law "On Energy Efficiency", the Law "On Energy Land and Legal Regime of Special Zones of Energy Facilities", and the Energy Strategy of Ukraine till 2035 "Security, Energy Efficiency, Competitiveness".

Partnership and Cooperation Agreements and the European Union's energy security in the context of Central Asia

This article presents a qualitative research with the aim of analysing and prognosing the future of relations between the European Union and hydrocarbon exporting countries in Central Asia, based on bilateral Partnership and Cooperation Agreements. The results of analysis, set within the broader geopolitical competition for influence in the region, distinguishes Turkmenistan's significant role as both potentially important state for the future of the EU's energy security, as well as the greatest challenge in building relations with the states of the region in a framework that requires a common axiological foundation.